E.G.S. PILLAY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous) Nagapattinam – 611 002
1902MCX03 -Essence of Indian Traditional Knowledge
(Common to All Branches)
Mandatory Course
Syllabus
Prerequisite: Nil Contact Hours per Week: 2 Course Objectives: The course will introduce the students to
To get a knowledge in Indian Culture
To know Indian languages and literature and the fine arts in India
To explore the science and scientists of medieval and modern India Course Outcomes: After successful completion of the course, the students will be able to
1. Understand philosophy of Indian culture.
2. Distinguish the Indian languages and literature.
3. Learn the philosophy of ancient, medieval and modern India.
4. Acquire the information about the fine arts in India.
5. Know the contribution of scientists of different eras. MODULE - I Introduction to Culture: Culture, civilization, culture and heritage, general characteristics of culture, importance of culture in human literature, Indian Culture, Ancient India, Medieval India, Modern India.
MODULE - II Indian Languages, Culture and Literature: Indian Languages and Literature-I: the role of Sanskrit, significance of scriptures to current society, Indian philosophies, other Sanskrit literature, and literature of south India. Indian Languages and Literature-II: Northern Indian languages & literature. MODULE - III Religion and Philosophy: Religion and Philosophy in ancient India, Religion and Philosophy in Medieval India, Religious Reform Movements in Modern India (selected movements only) MODULE – IV Fine Arts in India (Art, Technology& Engineering): Indian Painting, Indian handicrafts, Music, divisions of Indian classic music, modern Indian music, Dance and Drama, Indian Architecture (ancient, medieval and modern), Science and Technology in India, development of science in ancient, medieval and modern India MODULE – V Education System in India: Education in ancient, medieval and modern India, aims of education, subjects, languages, Science and Scientists of Ancient India, Science and Scientists of Medieval India, Scientists of Modern India REFERENCES:
1. Kapil Kapoor, “Text and Interpretation: The India Tradition”, ISBN: 81246033375, 2005
2. “Science in Sanskrit”, Samskrita Bharti Publisher, ISBN 13: 978-8187276333, 2007
3. NCERT, “Position paper on Arts, Music, Dance and Theatre”, ISBN 81-7450 494-X, 200
4. S. Narain, “Examinations in ancient India”, Arya Book Depot, 1993
5. Satya Prakash, “Founders of Sciences in Ancient India”, Vijay Kumar Publisher, 1989
6. M. Hiriyanna, “Essentials of Indian Philosophy”, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 13: 978- 8120810990, 2014
Culture: An Introduction
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Understanding
Culture
1
CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION
The English word ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning
tilling, or cultivating or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and refining
a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our admiration and respect.
This is practically the same as ‘Sanskriti’ of the Sanskrit language. The term ‘Sanskriti’ has
been derived from the root ‘Kri (to do) of Sanskrit language. Three words came from this
root ‘Kri; prakriti’ (basic matter or condition), ‘Sanskriti’ (refined matter or condition)
and ‘vikriti’ (modified or decayed matter or condition) when ‘prakriti’ or a raw material is
refined it becomes ‘Sanskriti’ and when broken or damaged it becomes ‘vikriti’.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
understand the concept and meaning of culture;
establish the relationship between culture and civilization;
Establish the link between culture and heritage;
discuss the role and impact of culture in human life.
1.1 CONCEPT OF CULTURE
Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak in
and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that
culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also the things
Culture: An Introduction
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Culture
that we have inherited as members of society. All the achievements of human beings as
members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture,
philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also
includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various
issues of life.
Culture thus refers to a human-made environment which includes all the material and nonmaterial
products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next. There
is a general agreement among social scientists that culture consists of explicit and implicit
patterns of behaviour acquired by human beings. These may be transmitted through symbols,
constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment as
artefacts. The essential core of culture thus lies in those finer ideas which are transmitted
within a group-both historically derived as well as selected with their attached value. More
recently, culture denotes historically transmitted patterns of meanings embodied in symbols,
by means of which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about
and express their attitudes toward life.
Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. It may be seen
in our literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment. Culture has two distinctive
components, namely, material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects that
are related to the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food, and household goods.
Non-material culture refers to ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief.
Culture varies from place to place and country to country. Its development is based on the
historical process operating in a local, regional or national context. For example, we differ
in our ways of greeting others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and
practices from the West. In other words, the people of any country are characterised by
their distinctive cultural traditions.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1
1.How can you say that Culture and Sanskriti carry the same meaning?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Fill in the blanks:
a.All the achievements of human beings and groups can be called................
b.Culture has two distinctive components viz. material and................
Culture: An Introduction
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Culture
1.2 CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
The word ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are often used synonymously. However, they have
clearly defined meanings differentiating them. ‘Civilization’ means having better ways of
living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. It also includes organizing
societies into politically well-defined groups working collectively for improved conditions
of life in matters of food, dress, communication, and so on. Thus some groups consider
themselves as civilized and look down upon others. This disposition of certain groups has
even led to wars and holocausts, resulting in mass destruction of human beings.
On the other hand ‘culture’ refers to the inner being, a refinement of head and heart. This
includes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human life
which are also classified as cultural activities. One who may be poor and wearing cheap
clothes may be considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most cultured person.
One possessing ostentatious wealth may be considered as ‘civlilized’ but he may not be
cultured’
Therefore, when we think of culture, we have to understand that it is different from civilization.
As we have seen, culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’ of a human being. Humans
are not merely physical beings. They live and act at three levels: physical, mental and
spiritual. While better ways of living socially and politically and better utilization of nature
around us may be termed as civilization. This is not enough to be cultured. Only when the
deeper levels of a person’s intellect and consciouness are brought into expression can we
call him/her ‘cultured’.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2
1.What is the difference between culture and civilization?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Give two similarities of culture and civilization.
_______________________________________________________________
1.3 CULTURE AND HERITAGE
Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their
predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from their own experience
and gave up those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things
from our ancestors. As time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those
already existent and sometimes we give up some which we don’t consider useful any
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Culture
more. This is how culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation to next
generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our cultural heritage.
This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a whole has inherited a culture which
may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits a culture which may be termed as
national cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings
by their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected and
maintained by them with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it.
A few examples would be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal,
Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s Qutub
Minar, Mysore Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah,
Golden Temple of Amritsar, Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church
in Goa, India Gate etc., are all important places of our heritage and are to be protected by
all means.
Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual
achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries
are also the part of heritage. In Indian context the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta,
Bhaskaracharya in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and
Varahmihir in the field of Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak
in the field of Medicines and Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of Indian
Cultural heritage. Culture is liable to change, but our heritage does not. We individuals,
belonging to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits of
other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural heritage will remain
unchanged. Our Indian cultural heritage will bind us together e.g. Indian literature and
scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga System etc. have contributed a lot by
way of providing right knowledge, right action, behavior and practices as complementary
to the development of civilization.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3
1.What is cultural heritage?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Give some examples of cultural heritage.
_______________________________________________________________
Culture: An Introduction
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Culture
1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Now let us discuss some general characteristics, which are common to different cultures
throughout the world.
1. Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there are
certain behaviours which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain
qualities from their parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are
learnt from family members, from the group and the society in which they live. It is thus
apparent that the culture of human beings is influenced by the physical and social
environment through which they operate.
2.Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture
if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.
3. Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed
from one generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the
particular culture as the time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life
that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture
goes with time.
4. Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new
cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular
culture as time passes.
5.Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing
constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or
changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture’s
cumulative quality.
6.Culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how an
activity should be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
7. Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts.
Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming
culture as whole.
8. Culture is ideational: Often it lays down an ideal pattern of behaviour that are
expected to be followed by individuals so as to gain social acceptance from the people
with the same culture.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.4
1.What is meant by permissible behaviour patterns?
_______________________________________________________________
Culture: An Introduction
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2.How can you say that culture is dynamic?
_______________________________________________________________
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE
Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings
can use. It is not merely a touch of colour. It is what makes us human. Without culture,
there would be no humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs, way of life, from the
most spiritual to the most material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human
beings are creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human.
A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression.
We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms
of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming
more and more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s
only one right way of living or that any one is valid. The need for coexistence makes the
coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best
thing we can do is get to know other cultures, while also getting to know our own. How
can we dialogue with other cultures, if we don’t really know what our own culture is?
The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked
with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; it
brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it is culture
that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us
the values of love, tolerance and peace.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.5
1.What does culture provide for a decent life?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Which individual would be called uncultured in society?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Culture has been derived from Latin term ‘Cult’ or ‘Cultus’ meaning tilling or refining.
‘Sanskriti’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Kri’ meaning to do.
Culture: An Introduction
Notes
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Culture
Culture may be defined as the way an individual and especially a group live, think, feel
and organize themselves, celebrate and share life.
Culture has different characteristics. It can be acquired, lost or shared. It is cumulative.
It is dynamic, diverse and gives us a range of permissible behaviour-pattern. It can
change. Culture includes both material and non-material components.
In deeper sense it is culture that produces the kind of literature, music, dance, sculpture,
architecture and various other art forms as well as the many organizations and structures
that make the functioning of the society smooth and well-ordered.
Culture provides us with ideas, ideals and values to lead a decent life.
Self restraint in conduct, consideration for the feelings of others, for the rights of others,
are the highest marks of culture.
A cultural heritage means all the aspects or values of culture transmitted to human
beings by their ancestors to the next generation.
Architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements,
philosophy, pleasure of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are parts of
heritage.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1.How will you define the concept of culture?
2.How is culture and civilization synonymous?
3.What is cultural heritage?
4.What are the general characteristics of culture?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
1.1
1.Culture’s literal meaning is to do and Sanskriti also literally means refining and cultivating.
2.a. Culture
b. Non-material.
1.2
1.Culture is what we are and civilization is what we posses or we make use of.
2.Changes in both culture and civilizaion occur. Civilization is advanced state of culture.
Culture: An Introduction
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Culture
1.3
1.Culture that we inherit from our ancestors is called our cultural heritage.
2.Taj Mahal, Red Fort of agra, Vedas, Upnishads and Gita
(Architectural monuments, Treasures of knowledge, Scientific and intellectual
achievements)
1.4
1.Culture forms an ideal pattern of behaviour that is expected to be followed by individuals.
2.Culture is changing constantly. New ideas and new techniques are added from time to
time.
1.5
1.Culture provides us with ideas, ideals and values to lead a decent life.
2.One who does not have self restraint in thought in feelings and in action, may be called
an uncultured individual.
Indian Culture
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Understanding
Culture
2
INDIAN CULTURE
Have you ever thought of the amazing progress we, as human beings, have made in
various spheres of life, be it language, literature, art and architecture, science or
religion? Have you ever wondered how all this has been possible? This happened
because, we did not have to make a fresh beginning each time, but were able to make use
of and build on the work of past generations. You have never had to bother about having
to make your own script or creating a new language system for yourself. These are already
given to you which you enjoy as a member of society. Then you build on it by making your
contribution or addition which further becomes an asset for the coming generations. This is
a continuous and never-ending process. It is a precious possession unique to human beings
and is known as culture. Culture is a way of life. You, your family has a culture and so does
your region and your country. You may be curious to know about the uniqueness of Indian
culture and find out its distinct characteristics. In this unit we will understand how Indian
culture is unique and what are its characteristics.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
describe the distinctive features of Indian culture;
identify the central points and uniqueness of Indian culture;
discuss the importance of spirituality in Indian culture;
explain the points of diversity and underlying unity in it; and
trace the process of infusion into and integration of elements from other cultures
in Indian culture.
Indian Culture
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Understanding
Culture
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE
Indian culture is as many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any
human being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses
of human being. It has also, in effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for
the formation of character.
Look at the map of India and you see India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her
physical and social environment. We see people around us speaking different languages,
having different religions and practising different rituals. You can also see these diversities
in their food habits and dress patterns. Besides, look at the myriad forms of dance and
music in our country. But within all these diversities there is an underlying unity which acts
as a cementing force. The intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in India
over centuries. A number of people of different racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and
religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us not forget that the composite and dynamic
character of Indian culture is a result of the rich contributions of all these diverse cultural
groups over a long period of time. The distinctive features of Indian culture and its uniqueness
are the precious possession of all Indians.
2.1.1 Continuity and Change
Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world. Many
of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. However Indian culture
has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of
continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right upto the present day.
You may have read about the Harappan civilization which flourished in the Indian
subcontinent over 4500 years ago. Archaeologists have found evidences to show that
cultures existed here even before the matured phase of the Harappan civilization. This tells
us that we have a very long history behind us. And yet what is amazing is that even today
the pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that of a Harappan
house. Some aspects of Harappan culture are still practised, such as, the worshipping of
Mother Goddess and Pashupati. Similarly, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions
continue to be followed even today. At the same time one should not lose sight of the
changes as are evident in the multistoried buildings in the metropolitan cities like Mumbai
and Delhi, quite unlike the Harappan houses that had only one storey. The point to be
noted here is that continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand in hand. In fact, a
remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it has kept on changing,
whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has kept on discarding what was
becoming irrelevant in the modern age. In our long history, there have been periods of ups
and downs. As a result, movements have grown and reforms brought about. The reform
movements in the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century
BC and the religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in
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modern India are a few examples when revolutionary changes were brought about in
Indian thought and practices. Yet the thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued
and still persists. Thus a process of continuity and change has always been a feature of
Indian culture. This shows the dynamic character of our culture.
2.1.2 Variety and Unity
Indian culture, over the last three mellenia, has successfully, but quietly, observed
the best assimilable parts from other religions and cultures, from time to time and
integated them into itself.
Indeed few cultures in the world have such variety as the Indian culture. You may perhaps
wonder why the people of Kerala use coconut oil while the people of Uttar Pradesh use
mustard oil for cooking. This is because Kerala is a coastal state and coconut grows here
in plenty. While Uttar Pradesh is a plain area which is favourable for the growth of mustard.
What is the similarity in the Bhangra dance of Punjab or the Pongal of Tamil Nadu or the
Bihu dance of Assam? Both are celebrated after a rich harvest of crops. Have you noticed
the different languages that we speak like Bengali, Tamil, Gujarati or Oriya? India is the
home of many forms of dance and music which we normally use for festivals and social
functions like marriages or the birth of a child.
A large number of languages and dialects are spoken in our country which has led to the
growth of a great variety of literature. People belonging to eight great religions of the world
co-exist here in a harmonious manner. Do you know that India is home to many religions
of the world like Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and of course Hinduism. Numerous styles of
architecture, sculpture and painting have developed here. Different styles of music and
dance, both folk and classical, exist in the country. So also are numerous festivals and
customs. This wide variety has led to the making of Indian culture both composite one and
rich and beautiful at the same time. Why is there so much variety in our culture? There are
many reasons for this. The vastness of the country and variation in its physical and climatic
features is an obvious reason for the variety.
The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among various
ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and
settling here. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like the Proto-Australoids,
the Negroids and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks,
Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India,
settled here and intermixed with the local population. The people belonging to other cultures
brought their cultural habits, thoughts and ideas, which got amalgamated into the existing
culture. You will be surprised to know that it was only around second century BC that
stitched clothes such as salwars, kurtas, topees, etc. were brought to India, by the Kushanas,
Shakas and Parthians. Prior to that Indians wore clothes which were unstitched. The latest
is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts, etc. which were brought by the Europeans in
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the eighteenth century. India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity for
assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and richness of our culture.
Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange between different regions of
India has also continued. The Chikan work of Lucknow, Phulkari embrodery of Punjab,
Kantha embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Orissa show a distinct regional flavour. Although
the centres in the South, North, East and West of India have their characteristic cultures,
yet these did not develop in absolute isolation. Inspite of physical barriers, Indians used to
travel from one part of the country to another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were
joined together through conquests or by alliance. As a result, people transmitted cultural
habits and thoughts from one part of the country to the other. Military campaigns too took
people from one place to another. This helped in exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led
to the development of commonness in Indian culture, which has been maintained throughout
our history. Another unifying factor is climate. Despite geographical diversity and climatic
variations India experiences an inherent unity. The system of monsoons is the most important
component of the Indian climatic pattern and this gives unity to the whole country. The
coming of the monsoon has ensured that agriculture remains the main occupation of the
people of India. On the other hand the differences in physical features have affected the
food habits, dress, houses and economic activities of people leading to the formation of
social, economic and political institutions. These factors in turn influenced the thinking and
philosophy of the people. The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus led
to the development of a variety of cultures in different regions. The typical features of
different regions have given some identity to these cultures.
The composite nature of our culture is reflected in our music, dance forms, drama and art
forms like paintings, sculpture and architecture as well. Our literature in different languages
also reflects this composite nature.
Unity in diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early Vedic period,
society was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to place in search of pastures.
But as the these people started practising agriculture, they settled down. This settled life
led to community development and growth of towns which needed rules and regulations.
Thus emerged a political organisation. This included the sabhas and samitis which were
political bodies through which people participated in governance. In course of time, the
concept of rashtra emerged and possession of territory became the new measure of
power. In some places, republics came up. The period from sixth to fourth century BC is
known as the age of mahajanapadas in India. In these kingdoms kings had more powers.
Subsequently large empires were also established with emperors exercising absolute powers.
You may be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshavardhana.
The Mughals also established a vast empire in India. The British established themselves in
India and in l858, India became a part of the British Empire. However in 1947, we were
able to gain our freedom after a long struggle. Today we are a sovereign, socialist, secular
and democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the length and
breadth of the country.
Indian Culture
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1
1.Name the state where Bhangra is a popular dance form.
2.What is the dance form of Assam known as?
3.Who brought salwars, kurtas, topees etc. to India around second century BC?
4.Which region is famous for Patola?
2.1.3 Secular Outlook
The secular character of Indian culture is a result of the intermingling of people belonging
to diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. There have been instances of occasional
conflicts here and there, but by and large, people have lived together peacefully for centuries.
The popular cultural traditions of India are the best examples of such cultural synthesis in
which a large number of people belonging to different religious groups come together.
You are aware that there is a great variety of thoughts and habits in our country. Among
such a variety, dominance of one particular thought is not possible. You will recall that
Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and Jews live in India. The
constitution declares India to be a secular country. Everyone is free to profess, practise
and propagate any religion of his/her own choice. The state has no religion of its own and
all religions are treated equally by the state. No one is to be discriminated on the basis of
religion. The people have, to a large extent, developed a broad outlook and they believe in
the concept of live and let others live.
Right to freedom of religion ensures secular nature of our polity. In the Western context
development of secularism meant complete separation of the church and the state. In India
secularism is taken as a more positive concept to cope with the complex social structure in
the country with a view to protecting the interests of all, particularly the minorities.
2.1.4 Universalism
The concept of coexistence has not been confined to the geographical and political
boundaries of the country only. India has a universal outlook and it has been promoting the
message of peace and harmony to the entire world. India has been raising a strong voice
against racialism and colonialism. It has protested against the formation of power blocks in
the world. In fact India became one of the founder members of the non-aligned movement.
India is committed to the development of other underdeveloped nations. In this manner,
India has been discharging her responsibilities as a part of the world fraternity and has
been contributing to the progress of the world.
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It has to be remembered that the subcontinent of India has been one cultural unit
throughout the ages, cutting across political boundaries.
2.1.5 Materialistic and Spiritualistic
Culture is spiritual development of a race or nation in the field of mind, interests,
conduct, thought, art, skills and civilization.
India is popularly known to be a land of spirituality particularly to the West. However,
Indian history from ancient times to present day shows that the developments of materialistic
and non-materialistic culture have been going on alongside. You will recall that the Harappan
civilization was an urban one. It had a systematic town planning where roads cut each
other at right angles. They had a profound knowledge of mathematics, weights and measures.
They had built their towns in a scientific manner and had an elaborate drainage system.
The Harappans had external trade and travelled across the seas to trade with the Sumerians.
Excellent books on medicines, planets, stars, and plants were written. Discoveries of
theories-like “earth rotates around the sun” or “earth is round” were made by Indians long
before Europe accepted them. Similarly in the area of mathematics and in the field of
medicine and other sciences India’s achievements in ancient times have been remarkable.
There was no opposition or resistance by religious or other thoughts in pursuing such
knowledge.
In philosophical thought even atheistic thinking developed and grew in India. You may be
aware that Jainism and Buddhism are silent about the existence of God. What does all this
tell us? Indeed, that Indian culture has been both materialistic and non-materialistic or
spiritualistic.
The culture of India is the living expression of the simplicity and profoundity of her
people.
2.2 CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION AND
ETHNICITY
Our cultural identities are based on various factors such as religion and region. As a result
each Indian possesses multiple identities. Which of these identities asserts itself at a certain
point of time and prevails over the others, depends on the political, social or economic
context in which the person finds himself/herself. Thus each person may have some things
in common with another, but may be vastly different in some other aspects. For example,
except belief, forms of worship and rituals, there may be little that is common among those
who follow a particular faith from the point of view of the whole country. Even in the forms
of worship and rituals there are sectorian and regional differences.
Indian Culture
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Thus culturally, Hindus are not all similar, nor are all the Muslims. Brahmins in Tamil Nadu
are quite different from their counterparts in Kashmir. Similarly, Muslims in Kerala and
Uttar Pradesh are dissimilar in several aspects of their culture. Regional identities are more
real. People of different religions and jatis may have common regional cultural traits like
language, food, dress, values and also the worldview. In Bengal, both Hindus and Muslims
take pride in being Bengalis. Elsewhere one finds Hindus, Christians and Muslims sharing
several elements of regional culture.
In principle, different religious groups owe their allegiance to different religious doctrines.
For instance the Vedas and Shastras may be sources of inspiration for Hindus, Koran and
Hadees for Muslims, and the Bible for Christians. However, at the level of rituals and life
styles there is a lot of intermingling among followers of different religions.
Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups. For example, in the small state of Nagaland,
there are more than a dozen tribes and they differ from each other in their dress, speech
and beliefs. Bastar district of Chhattisgarh has several groups claiming different ethnic
origins.
2.3 CULTURAL INFLUENCES
In the modern context, there are at least three significant influences on our culture. They
are westernisation, emergent national cultural styles and popular culture.
Before independence some Western modes were adopted by the aristocracy and members
of the civil services. The influence, over the years, has spread to the middle classes and to
a small extent, to the villages as well. The growing demand for English medium schools in
the villages is a proof of this statement.
During the struggle for freedom a new style emerged. This became a national style. For
example the Gandhi cap and khadi may now be only ceremonial and a symbol, but it
contributed to the unity of the country and provided commonness to culture.
Popular culture which is the product of mass media is another unifying factor. The impact
of films has been tremendous. Radio and television also reshape images and attitudes.
Their hold on us is undeniable. Modern media has promoted issues that are of both traditional
and public interest.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2
1.Give two examples of people who came to India from outside and settled here.
2.Which component of climate gives unity to India?
3.Name the civilization with which the Harappans were known to have had trade relations
across the seas.
Indian Culture
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Understanding
Culture
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The meaning of culture is very wide and comprehensive. It has been defined as a sum
total of integrated learned behaviour. It connotes a way of life of the people living in a
society.
Culture constitutes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society.
Due to its adaptability and comprehensiveness, Indian culture has survived through the
ages.
Unity in diversity is one of the major characteristics of Indian culture which makes it
unique.
A synthesis of various cultures came about through the ages to give shape to what is
recognised as Indian culture today.
Spirituality and value based life style is the core of Indian culture but it has a scientific
temperament too.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.What are the different components of culture?
2.Give the meaning of material and non-material culture.
3.Define the secular character of Indian culture.
4.Describe the distinctive features of Indian culture.
5.Write short notes on the following:
a.Cultural synthesis in India
b.Spirituality
c.Adapatability as a characteristic of Indian culture
6.Explain in detail unity in diversity in the context of Indian culture.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
2.1
1.Punjab
Indian Culture
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2.Bihu
3.Kushans, Shakas and Parthians
4.Orissa
2.2
1.Kushans and Mughals
2.Monsoons
3.Sumerian
Ancient India
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the Ages
3
ANCIENT INDIA
Do you think that the culture of Indian people has been the same since the beginning?
The answer is no. No culture remains the same. And this is true of India as well.
It has gone through many phases of change. Do you know why these changes
occur? This is because every dynasty, every invader who comes and settles down in the
country leaves their marks on the culture of that country. In order to understand the present
culture of Indian people, it is necessary to understand the process it has gone through in
the past. Thus, in this lesson we will attempt to take a look at the life of the people of
Ancient India. You will read about the various stages of ancient Indian history from the
Harappan times through Vedic, Mauryan and Gupta periods. The emphasis is on the
changing nature of Indian society with corresponding changes in society and culture. When
we read history we can understand how the modern world has emerged over long centuries
of development. It is important to appreciate what we have achieved in the past to make
our future worthwhile.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
appreciate the importance and relevance of studying history;
recognise the Harappan culture as the first known urban culture in India;
examine the nature of Vedic society, religion and philosophy;
explain reasons for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism;
trace the early history of south India during this period;
review significant cultural developments during the rule of successive empires; and
examine the general dynamism of cultural developments in ancient India.
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3.1 IMPOR the Ages TANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY
I am sure you have often asked yourself why you are studying history. Studying history is
one way of getting to know the past. History is an attempt to understand how and why our
ancestors lived as they did, what difficulties they met with and in what manner they overcame
them. It is important for you to be acquainted with the past to understand better what is
happening in the India of today. After going through this lesson you will come to know the
story of your country, which started many centuries ago.
History is no longer treated as merely a study of dates and events and that too largely only
political events. Its scope has been widened to include many aspects of life. These include
the study of patterns of life, which we call culture. Culture was once defined as that which
relates to art, architecture, literature and philosophy. Now it includes all the activities of a
society. Therefore the emphasis of history has shifted from the study of only the upper
groups of society to all levels of society. It now covers information on kings and statesmen
as well as on ordinary people who make history. It includes the study of art and architecture,
of the evolution of langauges in India, literature and religion. Now we do not look only at
what was happening at the aristocratic level of society. We also try to reconstruct the
interests and concerns of people at lower levels. This makes history more interesting and
helps us understand our society for better.
The people that went into the making of our society, at both the aristocratic and the ordinary
level, were not all indigenous to India, to start with. Many came from other regions and
settled down in India. They married locally, intermixed with the exisiting people and became
a part of Indian society. Our society, therefore, has a rich heritage of different kinds of
people. Because of this large variety of people, there has been an equally large variety of
religions, langauges, and customs in our country.
The correct understanding of history depends on two things. One is a careful and critical
use of source material given to us by historians defending certain statements which should
be decided on rational analysis. Secondly, historical events have causes and these causes
should be fully examined. Above all, even the past must be subjected to a critical analysis.
It is only in this way that historical knowledge will advance.
The past of India goes back several thousand years. We learn about it from the evidence
which our ancestors have left behind. For the near past we have written and printed
records. For times when printing was not known, there are records written by hand on
paper. But earlier still, when paper was not made, records were written on dried palm
leaves, the bark of the birch tree and plates of copper and in some cases, they were
inscribed on large rocks, pillars, stones walls or tablets made of clay and stone. There was
a time still further back when even writing was unknown. Our knowledge of the life of
people in those ancient days comes from the objects which they left behind, for example,
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the Ages their pottery or their weapons and tools. These are things which are solid and which you
can see and touch and these have sometimes to be literally dug out of the earth. They are
all clues in the game of a historical treasure hunt but they form a part of our culture. But
these clues can be of many kinds. The clues most commonly used are manuscripts.
Manuscripts are ancient books, written either on dried palm leaves or the thick bark of the
birch tree, or on paper. (Generally the latter kind have survived, though books written on
paper are not as old as the others). Some of the languages in which the very old books are
written are languages which we in India do not use in everyday life any more, such as Pali
and Prakrit. Others are written in Sanskrit and Arabic, which we still study and sometimes
use in our religious ceremonies although we do not use them at home. Another language
Tamil, which is spoken in South India and whose literature goes to an early period in used
even today. These are called ‘classical langauges’ and the history of many parts of the
world is recorded in various classical langauges. In Europe, ancient manuscripts were
often writen in Greek and Latin; in western Asia, they were written in Arabic and Hebrew,
and in China, classical Chinese was used.
3.2 ANCIENT INDIA
India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithic habitation
dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. However, the
first notable civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the
Indian subcontinent, covering a large area. The civilization is referred to as the Harappan
civilization. Most of the sites of this civilization developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar
and its tributaries.
The culture associated with the Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in
India. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation,
drainage system and broad well-laid roads. They built double storied houses of burntbricks
each one of which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities had other
important buildings such as the Great Bath, Grannaries and Assembly Halls.
Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas.
Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with
other civilizations such as Mesopotamia. They were excellent potters. Various types of
utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites. Harappans also
had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying. The bronze sculpture of
a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic sense of the
Harappans. Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and
objects. Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. It
was also a well planned wall city. It was an important centre of sea trade with the western
world. Another important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in
Rajasthan.
Ancient India
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Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, the Ages
peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans. It
appears that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature. They worshipped
a male god resembling Lord Shiva of later times and a mother goddess among others.
They probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells. Seals engraved
with animal figures like the humped bull, elephant and rhinocerous suggest that these animals
were considered sacred. ‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals.
Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script. But
unfortunately no one has yet been able to decipher that script. As a result, our knowledge
of the Harappan civilization is based on the archaeological evidence alone. The figures of
men and women on various seals found in the excavations reveal that the people knew the
art of spinning and weaving. They were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton. A large
number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between
the Indus valley and Mesopotamian civilization.
By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the
exact reasons why this happened.
3.3 VEDIC CULTURE
A few centuries after the decline of the Harappan civilization, a new culture flourished in
the same region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. This culture came
to be known as the Aryan culture. There were significant differences between this culture
and the culture which preceded it.
Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (which is now non
existent). They composed many hymns in honour of the gods and goddesses they
worshipped. These were compiled in four Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda
and Atharva Veda. The word veda means knowledge of the sacred spiritual knowledge.
These vedas were considered infallible as they imparted the highest spiritual knowledge.
Initially the Vedas were transmitted orally. Since our knowledge of the early Aryans is
based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to as the Vedic Culture. Scholars
divide the vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic period. The earlier is represented by
the Rig Veda while the latter by all other Vedic literature including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas
and Upanishads. Two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas, though
compiled much later, also throw light on the life and society of an earlier period. For this
period archaeological evidence has also been found in some areas of Uttar Pradesh.
Rig Veda contains about 250 hymns in praise of Indra who is described as a destroyer
of cities and there are 200 hymns in praise of God Agni. Do you know that Agni is
looked upon as an intermediary between gods and humans?
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the Ages Society and religion
Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and honour. The family
was the smallest social unit; several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several
villages formed a vis. A number of villages formed a tribe or jana which was ruled by a
chief called rajan. His chief function was to protect the tribe from external attack and
maintain law and order. He was assisted by the members of two councils called sabha and
samiti. The Purohita performed religious functions while the senani looked after military
activities. There was no concept of the state or kingdom at this stage. Although the post of
Rajan had become hereditary, he could be removed from power if found weak and inefficient
or cruel.
Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas - Brahamanas,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. This was also called the Varna-Vyavastha. To begin
with it denoted categories of people doing different kinds of functions but with the passage
of time this division became hereditary and rigid. The teachers were called Brahmans, the
ruling class was called Kshatriyas, farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaishyas
while the artisans, craftsmen, labourers were called Shudras. Moving from one occupation
to another became difficult. Simultaneously, the Brahmans also occupied a dominant position
in the society.
Another important social institution of the time was the system of chaturashrama or the
division of life span into four distinct stages i.e. brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education
and disciplined life in guru’s ashram), grihastha (a period of family life), vanaprastha (a
stage of gradual detachment and sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from
worldly life). However it should be noted that these stages were not applicable to women
or to the people of lower varnas. Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom,
had access to education and were often free to choose their partners through swayamvara.
Purdah and sati was not prevalent. The ultimate aim of life was to attain moksha or salvation
through the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama. Karma or performance of duty without
any expectation or return was preached in the Bhagavad Gita.
The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and
goddesses. Indra, Agni, Varuna, Marut were some of their gods while Usha: Aditi, Prithvi
were some of their goddesses. Some of the solar Gods and goddesses referred to in the
Rig Veda are Surya, Savitri and Pushau. Yajna (sacrifice) was performed along with chanting
of Vedic hymns. People poured ghee (clarified butter) and other ingredients into the fire to
invoke the blessings of gods. Agni or fire was looked upon as an intermediary between
Gods and humans. The vedic people prayed individually as well as collectively for the
welfare of the jana.
There was a change in religious practices during the later Vedic period. The prominent
Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra, Agni and Varuna lost their prominence and
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popularity the Ages . Their place was taken by a new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the
supreme position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity. The
religion became extremely ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras, which were the monopoly of
Brahmins, became an essential part of all religious functions. This made the Brahmins very
powerful and the Yajnas expensive. Participation in them was restricted to the upper three
classes. The kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya sacrifies to establish
their position. It is very interesting to know that some elements of the culture of the Vedic
Age have survived over a period 3,000 yrs and continues to be a part of Indian culture
even today. By the end of the latter Vedic age changes started occuring in the society. For
the first time people started discussing certain beliefs such as creation of the universe, life
after death and essence of life. These were questions which were dealt with in great detail
in the Upanishads.
Material life and economy
The Aryans were primarily pastoral and agricultural people. They domesticated animals
like cows, horses, sheeps, goats and dogs. They ate simple food consisting of cereals,
pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk and various milk products. They drank a beverage called
Soma. Games of chess, chariot racing etc. were their modes of entertainment.
In the early period there was no money transaction or taxes. Bali or voluntary donation
was prevalent. Cows were the measure of wealth. As the time passed, extensive use of
iron brought great changes in their material life. Iron axes enabled them to clear forests
leading to the expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains. Iron tools resulted
in varied crafts and technology. Use of iron weapons and horses enabled them to fight
wars and defendthemselves better against enemies. Increasing number of crafts, availability
of surplus food and growth of population led to specialisation of skills and urbanisation.
Towns and cities grew and territorial states emerged. High quality earthenware called
‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware’ have been found in many areas.
Coins came into circulation. Trade was carried on, both overland and through waterways,
enhancing material prosperity.
By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large territorial states in North India and
upper Deccan known as Mahajanapadas. Important among them were Anga, Magadha,
Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, and Panchala.
3.4 POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS
This period (B.C. 600 to B.C. 200) is important not only for political unity of the country
but also for cultural unity. Ancient India saw the rise of two very important religions, Jainism
and Buddhism which left a lasting influence on Indian life and culture. Vedic religion was
Ancient India
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the Ages earlier also known as Brahmanism because the Brahmins played a major role in it. Later it
came to be called Hinduism. The Brahmins had developed a vested interest demanding
large charities at the end of the scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices became very costly.
Moreover, the Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became
arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt.
Besides, there were other factors like the reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmin claim
for supremacy and the Vaisya’s demand for an improved social position. The Vedic religion
had become very complex and ritualistic. The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by
the poorer masses who could not afford the high cost of sacrifices, resulted in the emergence
of Jainism and Buddhism around sixth century BC. These new religions that is Jainism and
Buddhism also influenced the religious beliefs and several practices of Hinduism.
The founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva, the first of the twenty four
tirthankaras and as the last tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final shape to the
Jain doctrines.
The Jains lay great emphasis on severe penance and asceticism. Lord Mahavira asked
them to take five vows - not to tell lies; not to injure life; not to own property; not to steal;
and to maintain chastity (celibacy). He also asked the Jains to follow the three-fold path of
Right belief, Right Conduct and Right Knowledge.
Later, the Jains were split into two sects the Shvetambaras (white clothed ones) and the
Digambaras (the naked ones). Most of followers of Jainism belong to the trading
community.
The other movement was led by Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC), a younger contemporary
of Mahavira. He taught the Four Noble Truths. His path was the middle path. He believed
that there is sorrow in this world and that desire is the cause of that sorrow and it can be
conquered by following the Eight Fold Path (ashtangika marga). The eightfold path
comprises:
(1)Right understanding,
(2)Right thought,
(3) Right speech,
(4)Right action,
(5)Right livelihood,
(6)Right effort,
(7)Right mindfulness
(8)Right concentration.
Basically both these movements were against the orthodax and ritualistic Brahamanical
religion. Both the reformers emphasised a good moral life and the importance of ethics.
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Both of them founded an order of monks, established monasteries called sthanakas in the Ages
Jainism and viharas in Buddhism.
Later, Buddhism was also split into two divisions- the Hinayana and the Mahayana to
which a third called Vajrayana was added subsequently. Buddhism spread to a very large
part of the world- Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Thailand,
Korea, Mongolia and Afghanistan. Even today a substantial population of these countries
is Buddhist.
Hinduism underwent many changes in history. It gave rise to several religious sects within
itself with varying beliefs and practices. Like Buddhism, some sects of Hinduism also
spread outside India, particularly in the countries of South East Asia. Later Hindu tradition
even accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1
Answer the following questions:
1.Where were the most of the sites of Harappan civilization found?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What was the main occupation of the people of Harapan civilization?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where do you find evidence of neolithic habitation?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How do you say that a language existed in Harappan civilization?
_______________________________________________________________
5.How would you know that Harppans had sculpture skill?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Name some of the vedic literature of Aryans?
_______________________________________________________________
7.How does man attain Salvation or moksha?
_______________________________________________________________
8.How was vedic yajna performed initially?
_______________________________________________________________
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the Ages 9.Which were the yajnas peformed by kings to establish their position?
_______________________________________________________________
10.What change did the later vedic period practice in their religious ceremonies?
_______________________________________________________________
11.What were the modes of entertainment of the Aryans?
_______________________________________________________________
12. Name some of the Mahajanapadas of sixth century BC of North India and upper
Deccan?
_______________________________________________________________
13.In how many sects did Jainism split?
_______________________________________________________________
14.How many paths does the Ashtangika has?
_______________________________________________________________
15.What were monasteries called in Jainism and Buddhism?
_______________________________________________________________
16.Name the 3 divisions of Buddhism?
_______________________________________________________________
3.5 THE PERSIAN INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON
INDIAN CULTURE
In the first half of sixth century BC, there were a number of small tribal states in north west
India. There was no sovereign power to unite these warring tribes. The Achaemenid rulers
of Persia or Iran took advantage of the political disunity of this region. Cyrus, the founder
of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and
Sindh. It was believed to be the most fertile and populous part of the Achaemenid empire.
Indian subjects were also enrolled in the Achaemenid army.
The Persian rule in north western India lasted for nearly two centuries. During this period
there must have been regular contact between the two regions. The naval expedition of
Skylax probably encouraged trade and commerce between Persia and India. Some ancient
Persian gold and silver coins have been found in Punjab.
Though the mountainous passes in the north western border were being used from very
early times, it seems that Darius entered India through these passes for the first time. Later
on, a section of Alexander’s army traversed the same route, when he invaded Punjab.
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The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced in some measure by the Ages
that of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia. It may be mentioned here that the Persian title of
satrapa (governor) continued to be used by the Indian provincial governors as kshtrapa
for quite a long time.
The cultural effects of the contacts with the Persians were also significant. The Persian
scribes brought into India a new style of writing. It is called kharoshthi. It was derived
from the Aramaic script, which was written from right to left. Many of Asoka’s inscriptions
found in north western India are witten in kharoshthi. This script continued to be used in
north western India till about third century AD. The Persian influence may also be traced in
the preamble of Asokan edicts. The Mauryan art and architecture were also greatly
influenced by the Persian art. The monolithic pillar edicts of Asoka with their bell-shaped
capitals are somewhat like the victory pillars of the Achaemenid emperors which have
been found in Persepolis.
The Persian influence found in Chandragupta Maurya’s court was in the form of the
ceremonial hair bath taken by the emperor on his birthday. It was in typical Persian style.
It is mentioned in the Arthashastra that whenever the king consults the physician or the
ascetic, he should sit in a room where the sacred fire was kept. This indicates the influence
of Zorastrianism, the religion of ancient Iranians.
3.6 THE GREEK (MACEDONIAN) INVASION AND ITS
IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE
During the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for supremacy over
West Asia. The Achaemenid empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership
of Alexander of Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then marched
towards India. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Alexander was greatly attracted
towards India because of her fabulous wealth.
On the eve of Alexander’s invasion, north western India was divided into a number of
small principalities. Lack of unity among them helped the Greeks to conquer these
principalities one after another. However, Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when
they heard about the vast army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha. Alexander
had to return. He died at Babylon at the young age of 32 on his way back to Macedon.
Alexander hardly had any time to reorganise his conquests. Most of the conquered states
were restored to their rulers, who had submitted to his authority. He divided his territorial
possessions covering parts of eastern Europe and a large area in western Asia into three
parts and placed them under three Greek governors. The eastern part of his empire was
given to Seleucus Nikator, who declared himself a king after the death of his master,
Alexander.
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the Ages Though the contact between the Macedonians and ancient Indians was for a brief period,
its impact was fairly wide in range. Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the first time,
in close contact with India, as routes, by sea and by land, were opened between India and
the West. A close commercial relation was also established. The traders and craftsmen
used to follow these routes. Alexander asked his friend Nearchus to explore the sea coast
from the mouth of the Indus to the Euphrates in search of harbours. The Greek writers
have left many valuable geographical accounts of this region for us.
Alexander’s invasion paved the way for political unification of north western India by
conquering the warring tribes of this region. It seems that by his campaigns Alexander
made Chandragupta Maurya’s work of annexing this area easier. Soon after Alexander’s
departure, Chandragupta defeated one of his generals, Seleucus Nikator and brought the
whole of north western India upto Afghanistan under his control.
The influence of Greek art is found in the development of Indian sculpture as well. The
combination of the Greek and the Indian style formed the Gandhara School of art. Indians
also learnt the art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed gold and silver coins
from the Greeks. The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well.
Many valuable information about the social and economic condition of northern and north
western India of that time are known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian, admiral
Nearchus, and Megasthenes. They tell us about the developed condition of many crafts,
existence of a brisk trade with the outside world, and about the general prosperous condition
of the country. Much has also been said in these accounts of carpentary as a flourishing
trade in India. It seems the fleet which Alexander sent along the western coast of India
under Nearchus was built in India.
Alexander’s adventure also helped the West to know something about the Indian life and
thinking. It has been said that the ideas and notions of Indian philosophy and religion which
filtered into the Roman empire flowed through the channel opened by Alexander.
As the Greek writers left dated records of Alexander’s campaign, it helped us a great deal
to frame the chronology of ancient Indian history. The date of Alexander’s invasion - 326
BC provides a definite ‘marker’ for arranging the sequence of historical events in India.
3.7 ASHOKA THE GREAT : REPRESENTING THE ACME
OF INDIAN CULTURE
Ashoka occupies a unique place in the history of India. His policies of universal peace,
non-violence and religious harmony find no parallel in the monarchs of the world.
Ashoka stands out as a monarch who combined successful kingship with idealism and
philosophy. Like other rulers, Ashoka too began his reign with war - the conquest of
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Kalinga. However the Ages , the mindless destruction of life and property in this war shattered him
so greatly that he vowed never to wage any war again. Instead he adopted the policy of
Dhamma Vijaya that is conquest through dhamma. In his thirteenth major Rock Edict,
Asoka states that true conquest is by piety and virtue. Such a decision taken by a king,
who lived in an era where military might was the measure of power, earned him a unique
place in history.
Ashoka was a true humanist. His policies were oriented towards the welfare of his people.
His dhamma was based on social responsibility. Besides giving importance to respecting
brahmins, and servants, obedience to elders, abstention from killing living beings, dhamma
also asked people to live in religious harmony. It combined in itself the good points of all
sects. Ashoka proved to be a tolerant monarch who, although himself a Buddhist, never
sought to impose his personal religion on his subjects. In his twelfth major Rock Edict, he
states that in honouring of other sects lies the honour of one’s own sect.
As a king, Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself. He saw himself as a father and the
subjects as his children. He communicated his thoughts and philosophy to his people by
inscribing them on stone pillars and rock surfaces. These edicts are remarkable examples
of Mauryan architecture and also of engineering skills. They are the living monuments of
his times.
Ashoka attempted to educate his subjects by pointing out the wastefulness of expensive
rituals. He asked people to practice ahimsa. He himself gave up the practices of the royal
hunt and pleasure tours and instead began Dhamma Yattas tours for the furtherance of
Dhamma, By giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically
one script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification. India has been a secular country
since the Buddhist age. Though he himself became a Buddhist he did not impose it on the
others but followed a tolerant religious policy. He made gifts and grants to non Buddhist as
well as anti-Buddhist.
Ashoka’s fame also rests on the measures that he took to spread the message of peace
amongst the different regions of the world. He sent ambassadors to the Greek kingdoms
and the West. Indian culture spread to far-away lands. According to a Buddhist tradition,
Asoka sent Buddhist missions to regions such as Sri Lanka and Central Asia. Buddhism
spread to different parts of the world and although it is no longer a major force in India
today, yet it continues to be popular in Sri Lanka and the Far Eastern countries.
The Varna system popularly known as the caste system which had arisen in the Vedic Age
now became well established and gradually became the dominant form of social organization
throughout India. Along with the new religions and philosophy the growth of cities, crafts
and trade furthered the process of cultural unity in our country. Asoka unified the entire
country under one empire and renounced the use of war as state policy. On the other hand
he says that he strives to discharge the debt he owes to all living creatures.
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the Ages 3.8 ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS
The Mauryan contribution to art and architecture was significant. Ashoka is known to
have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various events of Buddha’s life. According to
Megasthenes, Pataliputra’s grandeur matched that of the cities of Persia.
Ashokan edicts were inscribed on stone pillars that were made of single columns of polished
sandstone and had capitals on their top. The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands
at Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar). This thirty-two feet tall column has an almost fifty ton
seated lion capital placed on its top, an engineering feat worth admiring. The bull capital
from Rampura is also another fine example of Mauryan sculpture. The most famous capital
is the one at Sarnath, which shows four lions and the Dharmachakra. You must be familiar
with this as this has been adopted as the national emblem of the Republic of India.
Besides pillars, few Mauryan figures have also come to light. The most well known of
these is the Yakshi from Didarganj. The beauty of these figures lies in the exactness of their
workmanship and in the fact that they. appear to be made from one single stone. Like the
pillars, these figures are polished with a unique surface gloss (now called Mauryan polish).
You will be amazed to know that despite all these centuries this gloss has not lost its shine.
Besides the language that has been used in nearly all the inscriptions and Prakrit which
appears to have become the lingua franca of the country and in the Brahmi script the
earliest known Indian script.
Another noteworthy aspect of Mauryan architecture is the rock cut caves. The Lomash
Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves are examples of such architecture.
These caves cut from solid rock were provided by Ashoka for non-Buddhist monks.
These caves marked the beginning of the rock cut architecture which was patronised by
later rulers too. His rock edicts were inscribed in the local language and the local script.
3.9 POST - MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
Although the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners, they were slowly
absorbed into the local population. Since they were warriors, the law givers assigned them
the status of Kshatriyas. It should be noted that such a large scale assimilation of foreigners
into the Indian society took place only in the post-Mauryan times. We can say roughly
from about 200 BC to about 3rd century A.D. profound changes took place in the economic
and political life and vital developments in different aspects of cultural life of our country
i.e. religion, art and science as well as technology. There was a significant advancement in
foreign trade both by land and by sea, besides emergence of various crafts.
Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism. In the Besnagar Pillar incription, Heliodorus
(the Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as a
Bhagavata i.e. worshipper of Vishnu. Similarly some coins of Kanishka also show the
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figure of Siva on them. the Ages You will recall that one of the Kushan rulers was called Vasudeva,
clearly indicating his vaishnava faith. Do you know the importance attached to the year of
Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78 A.D.. Well, it marks the beginning of the Saka era.
The interaction among different foreign ethnic groups and the Indians played an important
role in their choice of one or the other Indian religions. Some foreign rulers also turned to
Buddhism, as this did not create the problems of fitting into the caste system. Menander
converted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is remembered for his services to this religion.
However this increasing popularity of Buddhism brought about a major change in the
religion. Buddhism in its original form was too abstract for the foreigners. They therefore
advocated a simpler form through which they could satisfy their religious cravings. Around
the same time Buddhism split into two schools: the Mahayana or the Great Wheel and the
Hinayana or the Small Wheel. The former believed in image worship, rituals and
Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while the latter continued the practices of the
earlier Buddhism.
The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka, who convened the fourth Buddhist
Council to finalise its teachings. He also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.
Art and Sculpture
Central Asian invasions led to further development of Indian art and sculpture. Close
contacts with the western world introduced many new forms in Indian art. The most
significant development was the growth of the Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed
features from both the Greek and Roman art forms. Many images of the Buddha from the
Kushan period have Apollonian faces, their hair is in the Graeco-Roman style and their
draperies arranged in the style of a Roman toga. This assimilation of artistic features was
probably because many artisans from different countries trained in different schools came
together under the Kushan rule.
Mathura, which was the centre of the indigenous school of art, was also influenced by the
invasions. A number of images from here of terracotta and red sandstone, which have
definite Saka-Kushan influence, have survived. The most famous is the headless statue of
Kanishka from Mathura. While the earlier Buddhists had used only symbols to depict the
Buddha, the Mathura school became the first to make faces and figures of the Buddha.
Folklores such as the Jatakas were drawn out in long panels on rock faces. Besides the
images of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira were also
produced.
Deccan and South India
The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position under the Mauryas. After the
death of Ashoka, they assumed total independence. They became very powerful and
made their capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the river Godavari. The Satavahanas soon
entered into conflict with the foreign satraps, especially the Shakas. It was under
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the Ages Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni that the Satavahanas became very
powerful. They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads and administered
their State well. New towns came up and trade was carried on with far off countries like
Persia, Iraq and Combodia.
Kharavela of Kalinga
Another kingdom which rose to a position of importance after the Mauryas was Kalinga.
Kalinga included modern Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra. Its most important ruler
was Kharavela. The Hathigumpha Inscription in a Jain cave at Udaigiri hills would give us
a detailed account of his reign, but unfortunately it is not easily decipherable. It is definitely
known that he was a graet administrator as well as a brave warrior. He carried out works
of piety and public utility, like building roads and gardens.
South India
The area which lies to the south of the river Krishna and Tungabhadra is called South
India. It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas who were constantly at
war with each other.
Sources
The main source of information about these kingdoms and the life of the people is the
Sangam literature. That is why this period from the beginning of the Ist century B.C. to the
end of 2nd century A.D. is called the Sangam period of the history of South India.
Cholas
Karikala was the most important ruler of this kingdom. He defeated the combined forces
of the Cheras and the Pandays. He succeeded in pushing back an invasion from Ceylon.
Karikala has been credited with many welfare activities.He got may canals dug so that
water from the river Cauvery could be used for irrigation purposes. Karikala patronised
works of literature and art. He was a follower of the Vedic religion.
Pandays
The Pandyan empire was founded by a woman king. She maintained a huge army. She
also encouraged trade and patronised art as well as literature.
Life and Culture
The people during this period lived a simple life. They were fond of music, dancing and
poetry. Many musical instruments like drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.
Most of the people lived in valleys and a majority of them were farmers. Others were
herdsmen. There were artisans and craftsmen also who mainly lived in towns. There were
merchants specially in the coastal areas and trade was carried on by sea.
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Society the Ages
The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas. They soon merged
with the Indian society and adopted Indian names and inter-married. Even their coins
started carrying the images of Indian gods like Vishnu, Ganesha and Mahesha. The fact
that they had adapted to the Indian society easily may explain why foreign rulers patronised
Buddhism.
The Age of Harshvardhana
King Harshvardhana decided that he must subdue the petty warring rulers and bring them
under his domain. He devoted six important years of his life to do so. Hiuen Tsang, a
Chinese traveller and Bana Bhat, his court poet, have given detailed accounts of Harsha’s
reign. According to Hiuen Tang, King Harshvardhana had an efficient government. He
further tells us that families were not registered and there was no forced labour,
Harsha’s religious activities
Do you know that Harsha built many hospitals and rest houses? He also gave grants to
many religions especially Buddhism and Hindu Religion. Later in his life Harsha became
more inclined towards Buddhism.
Harsha’s literary activities had some important plays e.g. Nagananda Ratnavali and
Priyadarsita. He collected learned men around him as is evident from the report of Hiuen
Tsang and Bana Bhat. Bana wrote Harsha’s famous biography, Harshcharita as well as the
literary piece Kadambari.
Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South: You have read about the Satavahanas who
controlled the Deccan for a long time. After their decline, many small kingdoms came up in
the Deccan. The first one among them was that of the Vakatakas, who tried to build a
strong state, but they did not last long
After the Vakatakas came the Chalukyas of Vatapi and Kalyani. Pulakesin was a powerful
ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards
the north) and the Pallavas (towards the south). The Chalukya rule came to an end in 753
A.D. when the Rashtrakutas defeated them.
The capital city of Vatapi was a prosperous one. There were trade relations with Arabia,
Iran and the Red Sea port to the west, as well as with South-East Asia. Pulakesin II sent
an ambassador to king Khusrao II of Persia. The Chalukyas patronised art as well as
religion. They build temples and cave shrines in the deccan hills. Many of the sculptures of
the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas.
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the Ages
INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2
Answer the following questions:
1.What were the sources of information about the social and economic conditions of the
people of northern and north-western India in fourth century BC?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What is Dhamma vijaya according to king Ashoka?
_______________________________________________________________
3.State the views of Ashoka in his twelfth major rock edict?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Where do you find edicts of Ashoka?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Where is the national emblem of India taken from?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What were the features borrowed by Gandhara school of art from Greek and Roman
art forms?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Describe the uniqueness of Mathura school of art?
_______________________________________________________________
3.10 CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GUPTA
PERIOD
The last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth century A.D. and ends in
about the 8th A.D. The Guptas built a strong and powerful kingdom and under the political
unity and state patronage that was provided by them, cultural activities increased manifold.
You will recall that following the Greek invasion, various art forms in India had been
markedly influenced by Graeco-Roman styles. This art mainly depicted the Buddha or
Buddhist thought. But during the Gupta period art became more creative and Hindu gods
and goddesses also came to be portrayed.
The artistic achievement of the age is exhibited in the delicate workmanship and the variety
of designs shown in different kinds of Gupta coins. The general scheme that was followed
was to exhibit the portrait of the king on one side of the coin or an appropriate goddess
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with her associated symbols on the other side. The king is shown in many positions - the Ages
shooting a tiger or a lion, playing a musical instrument seated on a high backed couch etc.
On the reverse in most cases was Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and in some cases
Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts.
Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression in monuments and sculptures. The
skilled artists of this age used their tools and skills to express the ideals and philosophical
traditions of India through various art forms. They decorated even the niches and corners
of religious places with statues of gods and goddesses. The images of gods were treated
as symbols representing attributes associated with the gods. Hence the god were shown
having four or eight arms in each carrying a symbol or an ayudha (weapon) although they
were depicted in human forms. Stone, terracotta, and other materials were used to construct
the abodes of gods and goddesses.
Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the
cave temples in Udaigiri hills. However, the most famous examples of Gupta art that still
remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
The school of art that thrived at Sarnath provides us with some of the most pleasing and
graceful images of the Buddha. Besides stone, Gupta artists were also skilled in bronze. A
two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur
in Bihar). Examples of sculptures in caves created during this period are traced to the
famous Ellora Caves.
Architecture
The Gupta architecture has survived in a few shrines, rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples,
such as the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh. These structures were mainly made of stone
and bricks. Some references in the works of Kalidasa give us a glimpse of Gupta
architecture. The poet has given a vivid picture of a well-planned town with a network of
roads, market places, big sky-touching palaces and mansions with terraces. The palaces
had many inner apartments. They had court-yards, prisons, court-room and sabhagriha.
Their verandahs opened on roofs lit with moon-beam at night. The pleasure garden which
was attached to palace contained all sorts of seasonal flowers and trees.
Archaeological evidence about Gupta architecture is however poor. However, examples
of Gupta shrines have been discovered in the jungles of Central India, especially in the
Bundelkhand region. These include the one at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district.
Painting
Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the Gupta times. The
wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior)
bear evidence of this. Although Ajanta paintings belong to the period between the first to
the seventh century AD yet most of these were produced during the Gupta time. These
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the Ages paintings depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha. The skill with which the human,
animal and plant figures have been drawn shows the refined and sensitive nature of Gupta
art. The conception of beauty was a characteristic of Gupta art. Expression through art
was given importance as it was regarded as a means for the attainment of spiritual joy.
3.11 THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS
Any account of ancient India is incomplete without referring to the two dynasties of South
India i.e. the Pallavas and the Cholas and their contribution to art, architecture, administration
and conquests. Quite a few
dynasties rose in the South
from the early centuries of the
Christian era. Among them the
Pallavas were great patrons of
art and architecture. The
‘ratha’ at Mahabalipuram style
of temples built by them were
fine examples of rock-cut
temples. The Pallavas also
built structural temples like the
Kailashanath and
Vaikunthperumal temples at
Kanchipuram. The
Kailashanath temple is a huge
structure with thousands of
images and is said to be the “largest single work of art ever undertaken in India”. There is
also a set of bas reliefs found at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) which is attributed to
the pallava period. The
Pagodas built at
Mahabalipuram go back to the
first century AD.
Temple building activity
flourished in India from the 5th
century AD onwards. While the
North Indian temples were built
in the Nagara style consisted
of the shikaras (spiral roofs),
the garbhagriha (sanctum) and
the mandap (pillared hall), the
temples in the South were built
in the Dravida style completed
Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram near Chennai
Sun Temple, Konarak, Odisha
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with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. the Ages After the Pallavas
(6th to 8th century AD) the tradition of building temples was further developed by the
Cholas (l0th – 12th century AD) in the south.
Do you know that the temple was the central place in the village? It was the gathering
place for the villagers who would come here everyday and exchange ideas and discuss all
matters of common interests. It served as a school too. During festival days dances and
dramas were also performed in the temple courtyard.
The achievements of the Cholas also lie in their conquests across the seas and developing
democratic institutions for governance at the village level. The village panchayat called
sahha or ur had extensive powers. It had control over finances too. This body included
several committees which looked after various aspects of village administration. A very
detailed account of the functioning of the sabhas is available from one of the Chola
inscriptions. The Chola rulers were also great builders. The Dravida style of temple
architecture reached its zenith under the Chola rulers. One of the finest example of this
style is the Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara temple. During this period one also notices
great achievements in the field of sculpture.
Great progress was made in literature both religious and secular. Sanskrit also became the
language of the courts in many parts of the country. Tamil literatures also made great
progress. The Alvars and the Nayanars, the Vaishnavite and Shaivite saints made lasting
contributions to it. Inspite of the dominants position of Sanskrit in most parts of the country,
this period marks the beginning of many Indian languages as well as distinct scripts in
different parts of the country. In short, we can say that by the time, the ancient period of
Indian history came to an end, India had developed a culture which was marked by features
that have characterized it ever since.
3.12 TRANSFORMATION OF VEDIC BRAHMANISM INTO
PURANIC HINDUISM
The transformation of the ancient brahmanical faith into modern Hinduism can be regarded
as the most distinguishing feature from the Gupta period onwards. Buddhism no longer
received as much royal patronage as it did earlier. Brahmanism had come to the forefront.
The Gupta rulers especially provided filling to the Bhagavata Sect of Hinduism. They
called them selved Bhagavatas, worshipped Lord Vishnu performed Asvamedha yajnas,
gave large donations to brahmanas, and built many temples. The Puranas were finally
compiled in this age. Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion and came to be represented
as the preserver of dharma. Numerous legends gathered around him and a whole Purana
called Vishnu Purana was compiled in his honour. Similarly a law book called the
Vishnusmriti was also named after him. Above all, by the fourth century AD there came
into being a famous Vaishnava work called ‘Shrimadbhagavad-purana’ which taught
devotion to Lord Krishna. A few Gupta kings also were worshippers of Shiva, the god of
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the Ages destruction. Bhagavatism which was a contemporary to Buddhism and Jainism in origin
and owed its birth to the stream of thought which began with Upanishads reached its zenith
and became the most popular sect during this age. The theory of Ten Avatars or incarnations
of the supreme god Vishnu came to be accepted and among them, Krishna was considered
the most important.
Besides Vishnu, Brahma, Surya, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Durga, Lashmi, Saraswati and others
were also worshipped as were lesser gods like Indra, Varuna, Yama etc. The snakes, the
yakshas, and the Gandharvas also continued to be revered. Even animals, plants, rivers
and mountains were looked upon with reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayag became
places of pilgrimage. Idol worship became popular. Thus the prominent features of modern
Hinduism took shape during the Gupta period.
Although Buddhism was on its decline, yet it continued to have its following. Besides the
artistic creations of Ajanta and Ellora, the images of Sarnath Buddha belonging to this time
show that Buddhism was also quite popular. Even Jainism commanded some following
during the Gupta period.
3.13 NALANDA’S EMERGENCE AS A GREAT CENTRE OF
LEARNING
Nalanda became a great centre of learning during Harsha’s reign. Students from different
parts of the world came here to imbibe learning. Although all the remains mounds of
Nalanda have not yet been excavated, yet the evidence of a huge complex of buildings has
been uncovered. Some of these were as many as four storey high. According to Hiuen
Tsang, Nalanda housed as many as 10,000 students. It was supported by the revenues of
200 villages.
Although this huge monastic-educational establishment was primarily a centre for learning
of Mahayana Buddhism, yet the curriculum included secular subjects as well. Grammar,
logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here. Students were encouraged to develop
a spirit of enquiry and reasoning. Active discussions and debates were taking place. Harsha
is said to have invited a thousand learned monks of Nalanda to take part in the philosophical
assembly at Kanauj. In his account, Hieun-Tsang has given a detailed account of Nalanda.
Thus university continued to be the centre of intellectual activity till the twelfth century.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3
Answer the following questions:
1.What were the features of Gupta coins?
_______________________________________________________________
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2 the Ages .Where is Dashavatara temple located?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What are cave temples in Udaigiri hills famous for?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How high was the bronze statue of Buddha found at Sultangaj (near Bhaglpur)?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Where do you find the Gupta art form of painting?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Where was a philosophical assembly during Harsha reign took place?
_______________________________________________________________
3.14 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
According to tradition, christianity was brought to India by Saint Thomas in the first century
A.D. According to legends, the Parthian king Gondophernes (C. 19- 45 A.C.) sent a
messanger to Syria to look for a skilful architect who would build for him a new city. The
messanger returned with St. Thomas, who converted him and many members of his court
to Christianity. The truth of the legend is doubtful. It was most probably the frequent trade
and movement between India and the west which was responsible for bringing this disciple
of Lord Christ to India. The merchants, traders and even craftmen frequently travelled
along popular land and sea routes. St. Tomas preached christianity in many parts of India.
He was killed at Mylapore (near Madras). The tomb of St. Thomas is still to be found at
the same place. A large community of christians known as Syrian Christians contine to
reside in Kerala even today.
The Christian Church has two major divisions-the Roman Catholic church and the Protestant
church. The holy book of the Christians is the Bible. The Bible contains two parts: the old
Testament and the New Testament. The Bible today is available in all major langauges
spoken in our country.
Today, we have over one and a half crore Christians in India. Several charitable institutions
under their patronage are flourishing in all parts of our country. Perhaps the most famous
Christian social worker, he has contributed a great deal for the welfare of the poor and
home less in our country.
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the Ages
INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.4
Answers the following questions
1.How did Christianity come to India?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What are the divisions of the Christian Church?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who was mother Teresa?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name the two structural temples built by Pallavas at Kanchipuram?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What were the different style in temple architecture during the Pallavas and the Cholas?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Name the temple built by Cholas?
_______________________________________________________________
7.What was the style of sculpture in the Chola period called?
_______________________________________________________________
8.What style of work do you find at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram)
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
India has a continuous history covering a very long period dating as far back as 7000
BC;
The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage
system and broad well-laid roads;
Agriculture was the most important occupation of the rural people.
The vedic people have contributed immensely in various fields such as literature, religion
and philosophy;
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T the Ages owards the latter Vedic people society was divided into four varnas Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Important religions i.e. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism evolved and interactions
between them resulted in a synthesis in Indian culture.
The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as Gods
and goddesses.
The Mauryans set up the first great empire in North India and under the rule of Ashok
the Great it reached great height in many fields;
The Mauryan contribution towards art and architecture was significant.
Temple architecture reached its pinnacle of glory under the Pallavas who were great
builders.
Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the Dashavtara temple at Deogarh and the
cave temples in Udaigiri temples.
King Harsha came to the throne of Thaneswar after he had lost his family in tragic
circumstances.
Two persons have given detailed accounts of Harsha’s reign. One is Hiuen Tsang—a
Chinese pilgrim; the other is Bana Bhat—his court poet.
Harsha was an efficient and benevolent ruler. He indulged in may welfare activities. He
gave endowments for great public servants, rewarded people who did work of a high
intellectual calibre and encouraged religious activities by giving gifts to various sects.
He built many hospitals and rest hosues. Nalanda became a great centre of learning
during Harsha’s reign.
Harsha was also a literary person. He himself wrote plays and collected learned men
around him.
The achievements of the Cholas also lie in their conquests across the seas and developing
democratic institutions for governance at the village level.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.How do you differentiate the culture of Aryans with the Harappans?
2.State the circumstances which leads to the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism in the
sixth century BC?
3.What were the impact of Persian invasions on Indian culture?
4.What were the outcome of the Macedonian invasion on ancient Indians?
Ancient India
Notes
42 Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course
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History and
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the Ages 5.How did the transformation of vedic brahmanism into puranic Hinduism take place in
ancient India?
6.Describe the development of Indian culture during the rules of successive empire?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
3.1
1.On the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.
2.Agriculture
3.In mehrgarh in Baluchistan dated back to 7000 BC.
4.The seals contained some form of script.
5.One horned rhinoceros known as unicorn appeared on seals. A bronze sculpture of a
dancing girl was found in Mohanjadro. This testifies the sculpture skill of these people.
6.Veda – Rig, Atharva, Sama, Yajur and Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishada.
7.By dharma, artha and kama
8.It was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns.
9.Ashramedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya Yajnas
10.It was became more ritualistic. Instead of Indra, Agni, Varuna gods a new trinity of
gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva were worshipped.
11.Games of chess, chariot racing etc.
12.Anga, Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, Panchala.
13.Two – Swetambars (white clothes ones), Digambaras (the naked ones)
14.8 (Eight)
15.Sthanakas in Jainism and Viharas in Buddhism.
16.Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana
3.2
1.Greek accounts left by Arrian, Admiral Nearchus and Megasthenes.
2.True conquest is a conquest by piety and virtue i.e. welfare of people.
3.The honour of one sect lies in honouring other sects.
4.At Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)
Ancient India
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5 the Ages .From the famous Ashoka pillar, capital at Sarnath.
6.(i) Apollonian faces (ii) Hair style (iii) Draperies arrangement
7.(i) They started faces and figures of Buddha
(ii) Folklore were drawn out on long panels and rock faces.
(iii) They build statues also.
3.3
1.One side the portrait of king in different positions and the other side contained the
goddess with her associated symbols.
2.At Deogarh
3.Gupta art
4.2 metre high
5.(i) Wall frescoes of the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad)
(ii) Bagh caves (near Gwalior)
6.At Kanauj
3.4
1.St Thomas a skilful architect was a Christian. He was accidentally called by the Parthian
king Gonda phernes in C-19/45 AD as an architect. St. Thomas converted many
members into Christianity.
2. (i) The Roman Catholic Church
(ii) The Protestant Church
3.A famous Christian social worker who did a great work for poor and homeless.
4.Kalidashanath and Vaikunthaperumal.
5.Nagara style and Dravida style
6.Rajarajeshwar/Brihadeshware Temple
7.The Dravida Style
8.Bas Reliefs
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the Ages
4
MEDIEVAL INDIA
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the medieval
times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of
India. New religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement
contributed to this process. If you look around, you will see the impact of Islam on many
aspects of Indian culture. You might have visited some famous monuments in India. These
monuments stand as the symbols of the composite nature of Indo-Islamic culture in India.
You can also see how various religions in India, including Islam, have influenced each
other. Besides, every region in India is famous for giving shape to some folk art or the
other. Development of folk arts through which the common people display their creativity
is another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional languages that we speak
today too have an interesting history which evolved during this period.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
understand society during medieval times;
trace the rise of Islam and Sufism;
describe the political situation of India in medieval times;
examine the influence of Islam on Indian religion;
trace the growth of the Bhakti movement;
examine the development of folk arts, painting and music during the medieval period;
trace the rise of modern Indian languages;
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discuss the rise of Sikhism and the Sikh power in India; and the Ages
trace the developments in South India.
4.1 LIFE OF PEOPLE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
When the Muslim invaders came to India they decided to make it their home. They intermarried
and took to the culture of the Indians. There was a mutual exchange in ideas and
customs. In dress, speech, manners and intellectual outlook, the two influenced each other
very profoundly. Some of these changes are described below.
Society
The Indian society was divided into four major groups. They were the aristrocats, the
priests, the towns people and the peasants.
Aristocrats
The aristocrats included the Sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders. There
were also the Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers. They concentrated all
the wealth as well as the power in their hands. Needless to say that they were a group of
very powerful people. They lived in great style and luxury. The Sultan outmatched everyone
in this. He had to do it so as to maintain his superiority and his status. He had to show that
he was different from the others. Whenever a new sultan came to the throne, the Khutba
or sermon was read out in his name in the Friday prayers at the mosques and coins were
issued in his name. This established the new ruler on the throne. To maintain his distincion
as the ruler, he was provided with many officers and servants at the royal household where
he lived in great luxury. Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth.
The Priests
The Priests were another important class of people in the society. Among the Hindus, they
were the Brahmans and Ulemas among the Muslims. They were given grants of tax-free
land for their maintenance and were often very powerful. The Ulemas wielded great influence
on the Muslim Sultans and often influcenced their policies. But at other times like during
the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, they were even ignored. Sometimes the priests were not
interested in religious affairs but were more interested in worldly affairs.
The Town People
In the town lived the wealthy merchants, traders and artisans. The nobility, the officers and
the soldiers also stayed in the towns, that were the administrative and military centres.
Places where the Sufi and Bhakti saints lived and places which housed important temples
and mosques had become pilgrim centres. The artisans lived in their own special quarters.
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46 Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course
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the Ages In fact, the weavers lived in the weaver’s colony, the goldsmith lived in a colony inhabited
by goldsmiths and so on. This was the general pattern for all artisans and craftsmen. These
peopole supplied luxury goods were also sent abroad for trade. The royal karkhanas or
workshops employed these workers for producing beautiful goods which were often used
as gifts to be given away by the Sultans.
The Peasants
The peasants, of course, lived in the villages and were often the worst off. They paid huge
taxes to the state as land revenue. Any change of dynasty had no effect on their lives. Their
life continued as before.
The caste system was very rigid and intercaste marriages and intercaste dining was totally
prohibited. But exchange of ideas did take place on a large scale. Those who converted
themselves to Islam did not forget their old customs. Thus, exchange of ideas and customs
took place. Many Hindu customs were adopted by the Muslims while many Muslim customs
were adopted by the Hindus, like those concerning food, dress, clothing and music, besides
many others.
Trade
Trade was flourishing and many new towns came up to encourage trade. Some communities
like the Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special vocation. The banjaras
traded in caravans and were continuoulsy on the move carrying goods from one place to
another.
Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing goods. There was rice from the
East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the Doab and fine silks from the South. Besides,
there were luxury goods like metalware, ivory, jewellery, cotton textiles and many other.
Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and China also came to Delhi. According
to Ibn Batuta, Delhi at that time was a magnificent city.
The growth of trade encouraged the use of money and at this time came into use the silver
tanka (coin). It was the most commonly used currency and was introduced by Iltutmish.
Even the system of weights, that were used at that time, continued to be in use until the
recent adoption of the metric system.
Religious Condition
When Islam came to India, Hinduism was in vogue. But by this time Hinduism had
degenerated itself. There were superstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices. Brahmans had
become very powerful and the caste system was very rigid. The people, especially the
lower classes, were ill-treated. Islam was the opposite of what was in practise among the
Hindus. It talked of equality, brotherhood and oneness of God. There were no dogmas in
Islam. On the other hand, it had a simple doctrine and a democratic organisation.
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The coming of Islam did not bring in many changes in the political structure of the country the Ages .
On the other hand, it challenged the social pattern of society. The important result of this
contact was the emergence of the Bhakti movement and the Sufi movement. Both the
movements were based on the fact that God was supreme, all men were equal for Him
and Bhakti or devotion to Him was the way to achieve salvation.
4.2 RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM
The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. They were
fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make India their
home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them
traces of Indian science and culture. As a result they became cultural ambassadors of India
by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The
immigrant Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned
to live together in harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Hindus
and Muslims influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs and intellectual
pursuits. The Muslims also brought with them their religion, Islam which had a deep impact
on Indian society and culture. Let us find out more about Prophet Mohammad and Islam
in this lesson.
Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia. He was born in
AD 5 71 in the Quraysh tribe of Arabia. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622
and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is
the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. It has been
translated into several languages.
The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
(1)Tauhid (belief in Allah)
(2)Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
(3) Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
(4)Zakat (giving of alms)
(5) Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees. After
his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs.
Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one God. Its arrival particularly
made a profound impact on the traditional pattern of Indian society. The rise of both the
Bhakti and the Sufi movements contributed immensely in this regard. Both the Bhakti and
the Sufi movements believed that all humans are equal, God is supreme and devotion to
God is the only way to achieve salvation.
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48 Indian Culture and Heritage Secondary Course
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the Ages 4.2.1 Rise of Sufism
Sufism is a common term used for Islamic mysticism. The Sufis were very liberal in their
religious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all religions. They preached spirituality
through music and doctrines that professed union with God. Sufism originated in Iran and
found a congenial atmosphere in India under the Turkish rule. Their sense of piety, tolerance,
sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from
lower classes, to Islam. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin
Ganj-e-Shakar were the pioneer sufïs who are still loved, respected and honoured in
India. The sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the
establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs. Khanqah the institutions (abode of Sufis)
set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam deeper into the countryside. Mazars
(tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the centres for the
propagation of Islamic ideas. These were patronized both by the aristocracy and the
common people. The Sufis emphasized respect for all human beings.
The Sufis were organised into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahs were named
after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. and Naqshbandis. According to
Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain-i-Akbari, there were as many as fourteen silsilahs in
India during the sixteenth century. Each order had its own khanqah, which served as a
shelter for the Sufi saints and for destitutes, and later developed as a centre of learning.
Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as important
centres of Sufism. These also started the tradition of piri-muridi, (teacher and the disciple).
In order to attain a state of mystical ecstasy, the sufis listened to poetry and music (sama)
which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani. They preached
the unity of God and self-surrender unto Him in almost the same way as the votaries of the
Nïrgun Bhakti movement did. Music attracts everybody, irrespective of language. Slowly
such music attracted the Hindus who started visiting the dargahs in large number. The
Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas and yogic postures.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1
1.The beginning of which era is marked by Prophet Mohammad’s migration to Madïna
from Mecca?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What is Roza?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who brought Hindu followers to Islam by their attitude of piety, tolerance concept of
equality and sympathy?
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_______________________________________________________________ the Ages
4.Name the author of Ain-i-Akbari.
_______________________________________________________________
4.3 POLITICAL BACKGROUND
The rulers of Delhi, who ruled from 1206-90, were Mamluk Turks. They were followed
by the Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northera India from Delhi till 1526.
All these rulers were called Sultans. A Sultan was supposed to rule over a territory on
behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph, who was considered to be the spiritual and temporal head
of the Muslims. Both the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read in the
khutha, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams.
In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replacedby the Mughals, who initially ruled from Agra and
later from Delhi till 1707. Thereafter, the Mughal rule continued only nominally till 1857
when the dynasty ended. The Mughals did not ask for any investiture but continued to
send presents to the Khalifas. They also got the khutba read in their own names.
However, Sher Shah, a local Afghan ruler, challenged the Mughal ruler, Humayun and
kept him away from the throne of Delhi for about fifteen years (1540-55). Sher Shah’s
reign stands out for many outstanding achievements. Among these was the construction of
several roads, the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk Road extending
from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to Attock (now in Pakistan) and run through Delhi
and Agra a distance of 1500 kos. The other roads were from Agra to Burhanpur, Agra to
Marwar and from Lahore to Multan. He struck beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper
which were imitated by the Mughal Kings.
Mughal emperor Akbar who ruled from 1556-1605 was a great ruler in the history of
India. He made a sincere effort to foster harmony among his subjects by discouraging
racial, religious and cultural biases. He tried to develop friendly relations with the Hindus.
To fulfil his imperialist ambitions he entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajput
rulers. His greatest contribution was the political unification of the country and the
establishment of an all powerful central government with a uniform system of administration.
Akbar was a great patron of art, architecture and learning. As a secular minded monarch
he also started a faith called Din-i-Illahi which encompassed ideas from various religions.
On every Thursday, scholars from different religions came to debate on religious issues
raised by the emperor. This was done at the Ibadat Khana in Fateh Pur Sikri at Agra.
Though illiterate Akbar patronised scholars and learned men. In his court there were nine
such Navratna Mulla Do Pyaza, Hakin Humam, Abdur Rahim Khan e Khanan, Abul
Tayal, Tansen, Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, Faizi and Birbal. Akbar’s policy of
liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However
this policy was abandoned by Aurangzeb.
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the Ages Aurangzeb’s short sighted policies and endless wars in different parts of the country
(especially in South India) resulted in the disintegration of the Mughal empire.
The rise of the Marathas in the south, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah
Abdali, unrest amongst the nobility in the court and the rise of the Sikhs in north- western
India destroyed whatever was left of the Mughal power. Economically India was still the
biggest exporter in the world and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process
of modernisation.
4.4 CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen interest.
The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these
fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this
fusion. The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty
towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault.
The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their time in
building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh
and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were waterways
and fountains criss-crossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens with stages or
levels. The water, while cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in small
streamlets with lamps lit behind them, making the water shimmer and lend a special charm
to the whole atmosphere. It could also be made to flow over a chiselled and sloping slab,
so that the water flowing over it shimmered. The best example of this type of garden is the
Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The Lahore garden has three stages. But
a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka
road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they
created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in
New Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in Mysore were
built in the twentieth century.
The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days
of Shah Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work are available in the Red Fort in
Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex,
the forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an important
part of our heritage. During this period mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to
dominate the landscape.
Coinage
Another aspect of art, which is of great importance to us, is connected with Numismatics
(the study of coins) which is a major source of information for any period in history. The
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coins of Muslim kings are valuable in history the Ages . Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks
give us plenty of interesting information on this period. From the royal titles, the name and
place of minting we can find out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status.
Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and several other provincial
capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties. Some of the legends found on the
coins are quite interesting. The warrior in the cause of God’ and ‘he who obeys the Sultan
obeys the Compassionate’, are a few examples.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2
Fill in the blanks:
l.The names of the Khalifa and the Sultan were read in the_____________.
2.A local Afghan ruler challenged the Mughal ruler Humayun and kept him away from
the throne of Delhi for about fifteen years.
3.To fulfil his imperialist ambition Akbar entered into matrimonial alliances with the
_____________ rulers.
4.The Rashtrapati Bhawan in New Delhi was known as____________ during British
rule.
5. The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the
days of__________________.
4.5 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The Sufis were not the only popular religious teacher of the time. There were also the
Bhakti saints. Their teachings were similar to those of the Sufis but they had been teaching
for a longer time. They were popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in the
towns. The people in the villages also flocked to listen to them.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and practices in common. Their essential
belief was in the need to unite with God. They laid stress on love or devotion as the basis
of the relationship with God. To achieve all this a Guru or a Pir was needed.
The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. They
disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings. The Bhakti
saints did their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible
even to simple minds.
The Bhakti saints belonged to various backgrounds but mainly from the lower castes.
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the Ages Many were artisans by origin or belonged to the less prosperous class of cultivators. They
stressed the need for tolerance among humans and religions.
The Bhakti movement was long known in the South. The idea of preaching Bhakti through
hymns and stories was traditionally done by the Alvars and the Nayannars of the Tamil
devotional cult. You will read about them later in this book
Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak was born of a Khatri family in the village
of Talwandi which is now called Nankana. Though
Guru Nanak was trained in accountancy, he preferred
the company of saints and sufis. Some time later, he
had a mystic vision. He left home for the company of
saints and pirs. He composed hymns and sang them to
the accompaniment of the ‘rabab’, which is a musical
instrument. His hymns are popular even today. He
emphasised love and devotion for the one and only God.
He strongly denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages,
sacrifices and rituals as a way to achieving God. He
demanded purity of character and conduct as the first
condition of approaching God. He believed that anyone
could achieve a spiritual life while doing his duties as a householder.
Ramanuja
Ramanuja was from the South and he taught in
the langauge of the common people. His disciple
was Ramananda who took his Guru’s message
to the northern parts of India.
Ramananda
Ramananda was born at Allahabad and educated
at Varanasi. He preached at both these places.
He wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil
customs and practices. He wanted people to
know that all men were equal in the eyes of God
and there was nobody high born or low born.
His followers belonged to diferent walks of like.
For example, Kabir was a weaver, Sadhana was
a butcher, Ravidasa was a cobbler and Sena was
a barber.
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Kabir the Ages
Kabir was Ramananda’s favourite disciple. Like
Nanak, he criticised the existing social order and
called for Hindu-Muslim unity. Kabir, the son
of a Muslim weaver, strongly denounced idol
worship, taking part in formal worship such as
Namaz, pilgrimages or bathing in rivers. He
wanted to preach a religion which was
acceptable to all and that would unite all
religions. He emphasised the unity of God. He
called Him by several names such as Rama,
Gobinda, Hari and Allah. You must have read
his ‘Dohas’ or ‘couplets’ in Hindi.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal. He was a devotee
of Lord Krishna. Though he was a Brahman he
condemned the caste system and emphasised on the
equality of all. He wanted the people to know that true
worship lay in love and devotion. He used to go into a
trance singing devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Mirabai
Mirabai was another Bhakti Saint who worshipped,
composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Like Chaitanya, she too would go into a trance in her
love for the God.
Namadeva
Namadeva was a tailor. He wrote in Marathi. His
poetry spoke of intense love and devotion to God.
Popularity of the Bhakti Movement
How did the Bhakti movement became so popular
with the people? An important reason was that they
challenged the caste system and the superiority of the
Brahmanas. They welcomed the ideas of equality and
brotherhood which the Sufi saints also preached.
People were no longer satisfied with the old religion. They wanted a religion which could
satisfy both their rationality as well as emotions.
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the Ages All the Bhakti saints emphasised oneness of God. They said that the path to God lay in
devotion and Bhakti to Him and not in any rituals. They condemned rituals and sacrifies.
In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti. The
nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously as
Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and
Nanak. The saguna bhaktas were devotees of Rama, the son of Dasharatha, or Krishna,
the son of Devaki and Vasudeva. Some of the best examples of Saguna bhaktas were
Tulsidas, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita Manas, and Surdas, who sang
praises of Krishna in his famous Sursagar. Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee
of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this tradition.
The first important feature of bhakti movement was the concept of oneness of God and
brotherhood of all human beings. It did not discriminate against anyone on the basis of
caste or gender. Its second important feature was surrender into God, who is all pervasive
and capable of solving the problems of the devotees. The third important feature of bhakti
was an intense personal devotion to God with an emphasis on a good moral life. It was felt
that chanting the name of God constantly purified the soul and prepared one for His grace.
A true devotee does not want heaven or moksha. He only wants to chant the Lord’s name
and be born again and again to sing His praise.
In addition, came the guru or spiritual teacher, whose function was to provide people with
hope, strength and inner courage. He was supposed to be a person who had marched
ahead on the path of bhakti and had probably realised God and hence was capable of
leading others into Him. This brought in a system of pahul. Pahul was the sanctified water
offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee on
his march to godliness. The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called
khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-soldier concept). Have
you been able to notice here some features of the Bhakti tradition, which were similar to
the practices and ideas of the Sufis?
The spirit of Bhakti pervaded the whole of India and found vivid and beautiful expression
in the religious poetry of the medieval saints and mystics, no matter what religious faith they
believed in. Their literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united the people,
as nothing else could have done. It also stimulated the development of regional languages.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.3
Answer the following questions
1.What were the two main streams of bhakti movement?
_______________________________________________________________
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2 the Ages .Name an important nirguna and saguna bhakti poet.
_______________________________________________________________
4.6 DEVELOPMENT OF FOLK ARTS
The rural masses got opportunities to display their creative skills in many fields. Several
occasions associated with agricultural operations, for example the tilling of soil, sowing of
saplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the weeds and many other social functions provided
opportunities for singing and dancing. Does this sound familiar to you? Yes, the festivals
and rituals you perform today have continued from the past with necessary changes in
keeping with time.
The advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-making. The gods were
invoked and special pujas offered in the temples. It was also an occasion for enjoying the
swings. Similarly, ladies on their spinning wheels accompanied by other ladies would sit
together and sing till late into the night. This was a common sight in almost all the villages in
India.
It is important to note that almost every region developed its own peculiar dance form with
a local flavour. Thus Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani and
innumerable other dance forms, came into existence. Today, some of these are performed
during the Republic Day celebrations as well as on other festive occasions.
Formal education was not considered very important for women but this did not prevent
them from showing their talent in various other fields. They displayed their creativity in
needlework. In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts and
ghagras. The Rajasthanis also created beautiful designs of tie and dye work in fabrics
used both by women and men. Even today, we find the people of Rajasthan as the most
colourfully dressed in India. Their lavishness could be seen in the way they decorated their
animals (horses, bullocks, camels and even elephants). In Punjab, the girls created beautiful
phulkaris. In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts, salwars, odhanis
and even sarees. It appears that the dramatists about whom Bharata mentions in his
Natyashastra (fifth century AD) had not completely disappeared. The tamasha and the
lavani forms of dance drama were developed in Maharashtra; the Pandavanis in central
India and Merasis in northern India applied such art forms with slight modifications. So
also the puppeteer, the bard and the mime moved from place to place, entertaining people
in various ways. The acrobat and the juggler also could be seen moving from place to
place. In some areas the martial arts were developed, while wrestling has been popular all
over India since time immemorial.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.4
1.Name any two important folk dances.
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name any one important type of needlework that developed in India.
_______________________________________________________________
4.7 PAINTING
Another area which was influenced by Islamic culture was painting. Humayun had spent
more than twelve years in Persia as a refugee. He brought painters with him to India when
he became the ruler of Delhi once again in 1555. Famous among them were Mir Sayid Ali
and Abdus Samad who nurtured the tradition of painting manuscript. An example of it is
Dastan-e-Amir Hamza, which has nearly 1200 paintings. The period also witnessed the
flowering of portrait and miniature paintings. However, what is amazing is that some of
these painters tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving form and colour to such
abstract conceptions as music. Seasons or baramasa paintings were similarly given artistic
forms. Can you ever estimate the creativity of these artists? Nowhere else in the world
except perhaps in China, artists have tried to paint music or seasons.
Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued to give patronage to these artists and as a
result, the Mughal school of painting continued to flourish. Akbar as a liberal ruler extended
his patronage to painting. He also employed a large number of Hindu painters like Daswant
and Basawan Lal. Consequently, there was a fusion of Persian and Indian styles (of painting)
during his period. The European influence on Indian painting too was noticed.
The Mughal school of painting reached its zenith under Jahangir who was a famous painter.
His court was adorned with famous painters like Ustad and Abul Hasan. Mansur was
famous for his miniature painting. However Aurangzeb due to his orthodox views and
political preoccupations, stopped patronising music and painting. Like their masters, some
princes also extended patronage to painters. Thus, besides the Mughal school, the Rajput
and the Pahari schools of painting also received encouragement. Even the upper classes in
society started patronising painters. As a result, the havelis (big mansions) of the rich and
temples were profusely embellished. These havelis in Rajasthan attract a large number of
tourists even today. You can visit these havelis if you find an opportunity to visit Rajasthan.
The Mughal school of painting from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century gave rise to the
Indo-Persian school of miniature art. The Mughal court painters introduced landscapes
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together with human figures and costumes. When they came in touch with the traditional the Ages
Indian styles, they became more natural. Signing on the miniatures as a tradition also
started. Artists were now employed on monthly salaries. They illustrated such important
works as the Changeznama, Zafarnama and the Ramayana.
4.8 MUSIC
The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, patronised several musicians.
Tansen, who adorned the court of Akbar, not only sang the classical ragas but also
composed new ones. It is said that Shah Jahan himself was quite a good singer. These
musicians entertained the emperors at different times of the day and in different seasons
with appropriate ragas.
During the Turko-Afghan rule in India, a synthesis of Indo Iranian music had started.
During the Mughal rule, it developed further. It is interesting to note that Aurangzeb was
against music, but the largest number of books on classical Indian music in Persian were
written during his time. In the North, a distinct school known as the Hindustani school of
music came into being and its speciality lay in producing sweet and rapturous melodies to
suit different moods of life. The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly. Khayal,
Thumri and Ghazal were also elaborated during this period. Tansen, was in a sense the
pioneer of this school. Similarly, in the south, the Carnatic school of music developed.
However, ordinary people retained the flair for folk music and folk songs to commemorate
their local chiefs like Alha-Udal, Dulla-Bhatti, Jaimal-Phatta etc.
Indo-Mughal Culture
The Mughal rulers discarded the Afghan titles of Sultan and styled themselves as Badshah
(emperor) and Din-e-Panah (protector of faith). Further, to evoke reverence among the
subject for the emperor, they started the practice of jharokha darshan or making public
appearances through specially built windows. They also encouraged the court practice of
sijda (low prostration before the kings) and concentrated religious and political power
more firmly in their hands.
4.9 RISE OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES
Another important development during this period was the emergence of several modern
Indian languages. Urdu perhaps originated around Delhi. It developed as a camp language
in the army of Allauddin Khilji when they were stationed in the Deccan around fourteenth
century AD. In fact, the states of Bijapur and the Golconda in the Deccan became the
cradles of Urdu literature. The language soon developed its own grammar and became a
distinct language.
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the Ages As time passed, it came to be used by the elite as well. The famous poet Amir Khusrau,
who composed poetry in this language, also played some part in making it popular. Besides
poetry, beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written in Urdu during the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the first half of the ninteenth century Urdu journalism
played a very important role during the struggle for independence.
Along with Urdu, nearly all other modern Indian languages like Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Khari Boli, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi, Kashmiri as well as the four South Indian
languages -Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam – came to acquire their present form
and developed during this period.
4.10 NEW FAITHS
During this period, two new religious faiths flourished in India. They were Sikhism and
Zoroastrianism. To bring the established reforms within religion various reform movements
also started in India,
Sikhism
The Sikhs, who mostly belong to Punjab, form a sizable group of our population. The
orthodox Sikhs believe that their religion was revealed by God to Guru Nanak, whose
spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru. Guru Gobind Singh,
ordained the Sikhs to treat the Adi Granth, popularly known as the Guru Granth Sahib,
as their Guru. But the students of history and religion think that the seeds for the birth and
growth of this religion were present in the Bhakti movement, in its nirguna branch. The
Sikhs basically believe in a formless God, equality of all mankind, need of a guru and the
pahul tradition.
Sometimes, the gurudom was conferred on the son and sometimes on the best disciple.
The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things. The first was in the shape of
the Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints. The
second was the standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written.
And finally, the site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple and
the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh
community are issued.
The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699.
He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a
beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an
underwear extending to a little above the knees). Consequently, these symbols became
the distinguishing marks of a Sikh. He further added that after his death the Adi Granth
will be the guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism and they believed that through
music one can attain ecstacy or samadhi.
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Zoroastrianism the Ages
The Parsi or Zoroastrian religion was founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth
century BC. He preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia.
He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura
Mazda and Ahura Man. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness and charity. These
doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
The Zorastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant religion
till the eighth century AD when Muslims conquered this region. Most of the Parsis migrated
to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat,
and later on spread to almost all parts of India. They have contributed a lot to Indian
culture. It was Dadabhai Naoroji, the famous nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed
the hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not exploiting it. Another outstanding
figure, who belonged to this community, was Jamshedji Tata, a pioneering Indian industrialist.
He established an iron and steel industry in India in the face of the toughest competition
posed by the British steel mills and yet continued to prosper. The Parsees also established
a large number of public charities. Zorastrianism is not a proselytising religion and no new
entrants are accepted into its fold under any circumstances.
Thus, we can see that the cultural stream in India continued to assimilate all the newcomers
and the resulting cultural interaction gave Indian culture its characteristic multidimensional,
multilingual, multireligious and yet composite nature.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.5
Fill in the blanks
1.________________founded the Khalsa and fixed the vow of five Ks.
2.______________worship the fire, believe in good and bad and encourage kindness
and charity.
4.11 SOUTH INDIA
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD, a dynasty known as the Cholas was ruling
the Cholamandalam region in Southern India. The Cholas developed a strong army, besides
a powerful navy. Rajendra Chola is said to have conquered some Indonesian islands.
They also developed democratic institutions at the village level. Even Buddhism and Jainism
flourished in this region. Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings of the highest
order flourished under their patronage. The fourteenth century saw the rise of a new state
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the Ages called Vijayanagara now called Karnataka. To the north of this state across the Tungabhadra
river rose a new Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known as Andhra Pradesh. The
Bahamani and Vijayanagara kingdoms were pitted against each other over the rich Raichur
Doab.
In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was popular. In Karnataka, Kannada, in
Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala, Malyalam flourished, all having different scripts. It is just
possible that originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old language. But by the
middle ages, the four languages had come to have distinct identities. However, between
the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries, Vijayanagara achieved great heights. Some
foreigners, who visited these areas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have praised the
kings, the town and the people. The remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi dazzle the
world even today.
During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning. The Vijayanagara kings
also became great patrons of art and leaming.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The early Turkish rulers (1206-1526) were called Sultans, as they were supposed to
rule on behalf of the Caliphs.
The Mughals replaced the Sultans of Delhi. They patronised music, painting and
architecture and they ruled India till 1707. They also built a large number of buildings.
The Mughal empire weakened and disintegrated after 1707. In this chaos, emerged
the British East India Company, as a political power.
The Sufis with their attitude of piety, tolerance, sympathy, and concept of equality had
deep impact on the Indian people.
The Bhakti movement of fourteenth and sixteenth centuries developed into two streams;
nirguna and saguna.
The people developed their own regional and local folk traditions of dance and music.
The medieval period saw the emergence of Urdu. This period saw the rise of the
present-day Marathi, Tamil, Telegu, Kannada and Malayalam in the south and
Assamese, Bengali, Hindi or Khari-boli, Punjabi and Gujarati languages in the north.
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak. Guru Arjun Dev finalised the present script of
Gurmukhi, the Adi-Granth and the site of Har-Mandir in Amritsar.
Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster in eighth century BC in Persia.
The Cholas conquered parts of Bengal and Indonesia. They introduced democratic
institutions at the village level.
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Kanchi became a great seat of learning. the Ages
Vijayanagara’s remains have been found at Hampi in Karnataka. In the Andhra region,
flourished the Bahmani state.
The Indian society at this time was divided into four major groups - the aristocrats, the
priests, the town people and the peasants.
Trade flourished in Delhi as the centre of all incoming as well as outgoing trade.
Islam had a great influence on the Indian society. There were two important religious
movements during this period – The Sufi and the Bhakti movements.
The most important Sufi saints were Chishti, Firdausi, and Nizam-ud-din Auliya.
Some well known Bhakti saints were Guru Nanak, Ramanuja, Ramananda, Kabir,
Chaitanya, Mirabai and Namadeva.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Describe the political situation of India in medieval times.
2.Discuss the influence of Islam on Hinduism.
3.Examine the role played by the Bhakti movement in enriching Indian culture.
4.Write a note on the rise of modern Indian languages.
5.Discuss the rise of the new faiths namely Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
4.1
1.Beginning of Hijira era
2.Roza is fasting in the month of Ramzan
3.The Sufis
4.Abul Fazl
4.2
1. Khutba
2. Shershah
3.Rajput
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the Ages 4.Vice-Regal Lodge
5.Shah Jahan
4.3
1. Nirguna and Saguna bhakti are the two main streams of this movement.
2. Nanak and Kabir (any one) Nirguna poets, Tulsidas and Surdas (any one) Saguna
Poets.
4.4
1.Garba, Kalbelia, Bhangra (any two)
2.Phulkari in Punjab, Chikan work in Lucknow (any one)
4.5
1.Guru Gobind Singh
2.Zoroastrians
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5
MODERN INDIA
T he history of our country can safely be divided into ancient, medieval and modern
periods. The ancient period started long ago, as long as humans have lived on
earth. In an earlier lesson you read about what happened in Medieval India i.e.
from about the 8th century A.D. and lasted till the beginning of 18th century. Now, we shall
read about the Modern period in History. During the last two periods you must have found
the society, economy, polity and culture very different from each other. These differences
which you may also call progress, developed, continued and increased at a very fast pace
and had very much more deeper impact on our lives.
You may recall that all those who came to India from outside such as the Turks, the
Afghans, and the Mughals made India their home. But the British colonial rulers always
remained foreigners to this land. Nonetheless they brought profound social, economic and
political changes to suit their interests and in the process left deep imprints on many aspects
of Indian culture. If you see the Rashtrapati Bhawan in New Delhi you can have a clear
picture of the British impact on Indian architecture. You see the pattern repeated in many
buildings in Kolkata, Mumbai and in several other parts of the country. All these have now
become a part of our cultural heritage. Apart from these architectural remains, the colonial
state also left behind a uniform system of government, a system of education based on
Western ideas, science and philosophies. It would be very interesting for you to know that
the social and religious reform movements begun in the nineteenth century helped to build
a modern India as well. Modern literature in Indian languages were all deeply influenced
by the spread of English education and through it India’s intimate contact with the ideas
and institutions of the West.
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OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
trace the events that were taking place in the West during the eighteenth century
and their impact on India;
describe the closing years of eighteenth century India;
examine the social conditions of the Hindus and Muslims during this period;
list the contributions of social and religious reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
Swamy Dayananda Saraswati and others;
appreciate the role of press and newspapers in generating nationalism among
the people; and
appreciate India’s struggle for independence.
5.1 RISE OF THE WEST AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA
From 1450 onwards, three important developments had changed the shape of Europe: (i)
the invention of printing press, (ii) the beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the
Reformation movements and (iii) the discovery of new trade routes. Thereafter, Europe
made great progress in the fields of science, exploration and gunnery. Soon, their armies
and navies became the best in the world. Scientific education began to spread. Logic and
reason thus became the touchstone on which the old dogmas and learning were tested.
Among these European countries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch, the French and
finally, the British entered into a race to control the trade from India. The British ultimately
succeeded in not only controlling trade but also the country and for about two centuries
India remained under her domination where her entire human resources were recklessly
exploited and her wealth was drained away for the benefit of the ruling nation. To further
their interest the British used the prevailing social and political situation in India. Where a
large number of states had cropped up after the decline of the Mughal Empire. The British
took advantage of this situation and had one ruler fight against the other or supported a
usurper to the throne. Though Tipu Sultan of Mysore tried to use the same principle as
used by the British, that is making use of the rivalry between the French and the British, he
could not match the superior diplomacy and fire power of the British.
The British domination of India was built upon successive phases. The first phase consisted
of taking hold of the Indian trade. They bought Indian goods at very low prices and sold
them in the Western markets at very high prices, thereby making enormous profits without
giving anything to the peasants. In this, they were helped by the Indian Seths and gomastas.
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In the second phase, the British took control of the production activities in a manner that the Ages
would suit their export objectives. In the process they successfully destroyed the Indian
industries. This was because India was a potential buyer of their goods. The third phase
was an intensified phase of British Imprialism and colonial exploitation when India was
ruled by the British for fulfilling British economic interests.
The Britishers came to India for making profits through trade. Slowly they gained political
and economic control of the country. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 A.D., they had
become the real masters of Bengal. They used political control over Bengal to increase
their trade and export of foreign goods. They eliminated the Indian as well as foreign rivals
in trade so that there could be no competition. They monopolised the sale of raw cotton
and made the Bengal weaver pay exorbitant prices. They imposed heavy duties on Indian
goods entering Britain so as to protect their own industry.
With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe, the Indian industries were hit very
hard. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign market.
Indian goods could not compete with the British factory made products, where machines
were used.
On the other hand, the English merchants had accumulated a lot of wealth which they now
invested in setting up industries and trade. The East India Company helped in financing
and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in
England who benefitted more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in
having more raw materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between
1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its
trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in abolishing
the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic
colony of industrial England.
As a result, Indian hand made goods faced extinction as British machine made goods were
cheaper. These goods either had a free entry or paid very low tariff rates to enter India.
Indians were to be modernised so that they could develop taste for western goods and
buy them. The Indian industries suffered as a result of exploitation at the hands of the
British, who did not at all care about Indian trade interests. They did not protect Indian
trade nor did they introduce any advanced technology in the country during this period.
Indian handicrafts suffered when foreign goods were given free entry. On the other hand,
Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they entered Britain. Indian sugar mills paid
duty three times its original price when sent to Britain. So the trade from India virtually
came to a stop.
India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw
materials by the year 1813 A.D.
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the Ages Since England wanted to exploit India for commercial gains, that is, by buying raw materials
and selling finished goods, they introduced steam ships and railways in India. The railways
opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian raw material abroad.
Do you know that it was in 1853 that the first railway line running from Bombay to Thane
was opened to public? The railways connected the raw material producing areas with the
exporting ports. As a result British goods flooded the Indian market.
Do you know that the railways played an important role in the national awakening of the
country, too? They helped to bring people and ideas come closer together—something
that the British had never anticipated. Isn’t this ironical?
Do you know that it was again in 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from
Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India?
INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.1
1.Who succeeded in gaining political control over India?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Who among the Indian rulers tried to use the rivalry between the French and the
British but could not succeed?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How many phases of the British domination in India can be seen?
_______________________________________________________________
5.2 INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY
AND CULTURE
Indian in the eighteenth century was a picture of many contrasts and contradictions.
Economically agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Since the rulers were
constantly at war, they did not have the time to improve agricultural conditions of the land.
Foreign trade was flourishing under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, wool,
dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf region; Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia;
tea, porcelain and silk came into India from China; luxury goods were also brought in from
Tibet, Singapore, Indonesian Islands, Africa and Europe.
Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things. India’s
cotton textiles were famous all over the world.
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In spite of such a favourable balance of trade, India’ the Ages s economic condition could not improve
because of constant warfare. Within the country, there were revolts of the Sikhs, Jats,
Marathas and from outside, foreign invasions, like that of Nadir shah (1739 A.D.) and
Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761), were common.
By the eighteenth century European countries like France, England, Portugal and Spain
were interested in trading with India. They helped in creating more political and economic
instability in the country and ultimaely they destroyed its economy. But, by this time, India’s
fame had spraed all over the world as a land of beautiful handicrafts.
Socially, there was no unity of pattern in the social and cultural life of the people. Whether
they were Hindus or Muslims, there was division among them on the basis of region, tribe,
language and caste. Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage, diet, interdining
as well as in choosing a profession. Any one found disobeying rules was most likely
to be thrown out of the community.
In the field of science that India, which was so advanced, had by now neglected her
mathematics and sciences. They remained ignorant of the advances made in the field of
science by the West.
Teacher were respected in society during those times. Education was steeped in tradition.
The students were taught reading and writing along with arithmetic. Girls seldom went to
school. Eduation was not patronised by the State, but by local rulers, members of the
aristocracy and benevolent contributors.
Hindu-Muslim Relations
Friendly relations existed between the people of the two religions. Religious tolerance was
practised. The wars were political and fought for selfish reasons rather than for religion.
Members of both the communities participated in each others festivals.Many Hindus had
faith in Muslim saints while many Muslims showed an equal respect for Hindu gods and
saints. In fact, the upper class Hindus and Muslims had many more things in common with
each other than with the lower classes of their own community. Besides, the Muslims had
adopted the Indian style and culture so well that it was difficult to distinguish one from the
other.
5.3 SOCIAL CONDITIONS
By the turn of the century, the condition of women had little to be happy about. The birth
of a girl child was considered to be unfortunate. Girls were married off in their childhood.
Polygamy was permitted. Women had no right to property or divorce.
Perpetual widowhood was the injunction of the society, especially amongst the upper
castes. These widows could not wear coloured clothes, or attend marriages since their
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the Ages presence was considered inauspicious. As child marriages were common in such occasions
sometimes even the infant girls became widows and were condemned to perpetual
widowhood.
Inter-caste marriages were not allowed. Even the prevailing social system did not permit a
person from a lower caste to eat with a person of a higher caste. The condition of muslim
women was much the same. They faced immense hardship due to the practice of purdah,
polygamy, lack of education and rights to property.
5.4 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMERS
Christian priests came to India along with the employees of the East India Company to
perform their religious rituals at the time of baptism, marriage, burials and church service.
But these priests soon started preaching Christianity to the non-Christian employees of the
Company as well. Slowly they started opening schools that were attended by the Indian
children. It were these missionaries, who also started the printing press and magazines for
disseminating Christian precepts and literature.
Along with Christian propaganda, English education was introduced which had a great
impact on the society and economy of India. Though the purpose of introducing English
education was to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it opened the windows for
Indians to the West. They imbibed new ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality
and freedom. Soon English language also became the lingua franca of the English educated
Indians and acted as a cementing force.
Ram Mohan Roy
Ram Mohan Roy is known as the harbinger of the modern age in India. He mastered
several languages including Greek and Latin. His role in reforming the Hindu society and
the reawakening of India is important. As a large number of social practices prevalent
amongst the Hindus at that time claimed to have religious sanctions. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
cited extensively from the religious texts to show that this was not true. The foremost in the
list was sati. Sati was immolation by a window on the funeral pyre of her dead husband
which had become a self practice in different parts of Bengal and
Rajasthan. Ram Mohan Roy took up cudgels against it and ultimately
got it banned. He founded the Brahmo Samaj, which carried his
message of rationalism and the principle of social equality. His
followers believed in the worship of one supreme god (monotheism)
and opposed idol worship, polytheism and ritualism.
Debendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905) succeeded Raja Ram Mohan
Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He tried to put new life
into the Samaj and propagated Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s ideas.
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Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) took over the leadership from the Ages Tagore. All this time the
Samaj laid emphasis on individual freedom, national unity, solidarity, democratization of all
social institutions and of social relations. The Brahmo Samaj became the first organized
vehicle for the expression of national awakening in India.
Prarthana Samaj and Ranade
The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma
Ram Pandurang in 1867. They tried to introduce social
reforms like inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and
depressed classes. According to Ranade, rigidity in religion
would not permit success in social, economic and political
spheres. He believed in the unity of God and de-emphasised
idol worship as well as caste system.
Ramakrishna Paramhansa
Ramakrishan Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda to regenerate Indian society.
He was a desciple of Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya, later known as Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
Vivekananda gave final shape to the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa. He advocated
liberty, free thinking and equality. He emphasised oneness of all
religions. He promoted the vedanta philosophy, which he considered
to be the most rational system of thought.
Theosophical Society and Annie Besant
The reform movement was also strengthened by the Theosophical
Society founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1837-91) and Colonel
H.S. Olcott along with others.
Annie Besant promoted studies of ancient Indian religions,
philosophies and doctrine. She also established the Central Hindu
School to encourage education.
Narayana Guru
Narayana Guru was a great saint of South India. He was born in
Kerala in September 1854. He underwent perliminary education
under the guidance of a local teacher. He became well versed in
Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil. He had set his heart on the path of
renunciation right from his adolescent days.
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the Ages After his parents died he set out on his journey in quest of true knowledge. He came in
contact with Chattambi Swamigal. They became great associates. They spent their time
serving holy men, meditating in solitude and making pilgrimages.
Both Swamigal and Narayana realised that the all round progress of Kerala depended on
the goodwill and co-operation among the Nayar and the Ezhava communities, in which
they were born respectively. The conflict between these two communities threatened to
ruin Kerala. They decided to work to bring the two communities together.
Naranaya Guru was a social as well as religious reformer. He lived a life of an ascetic and
did much to improve the spiritual as well as the social life of the people of Kerala.
Muslim Reform Movement
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the most prominent social reformer among the Muslims. He
realised that Muslims could only make progress if they took to modern education. Syed
Ahmad Khan was against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationalism. He denounced
purdah, polygamy and easy divorce. Syed Ahmad Khan started the Aligarh movement.
He established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. It was meant to be a
centre for spreadng Sciences and Culture. It later grew into Aligarh Muslim University.
The Aligarh Movement helped in the Muslim revival. It gave them a common langauge—
Urdu. A Muslim press was also developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.
Unfortunately, in his later years Syed Ahmad Khan encouraged the Indian Muslims not to
join the National Movement. He felt that education and not politics was needed by them.
In a way he encouraged the forces of communalism and separatism at this stage.
Social Reform
Do you know that nearly all religious reformers contributed to the social reform movement
too? This was because the backward features of Indian Society, such as casteism and
inequality of sexes, had religious sanctions in the past. There
were two main objectives of the social reform movements.
These were: (a) emancipation of women and giving them
equality with men, (b) removal of caste rigidities, especially
the abolition of untouchability and the upliftment of the
depressed classes.
Emancipation of Women
The most striking change in the Indian social life of today is
that in the position of women. Attempts have been made
by the State and reformers to do away with the practice of
early marriage by legislation.
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The women themselves have been zealous in making attempts to improve their lot in all the Ages
possible ways, like better facilities regarding education and social abuses. There is now a
growth of political consciousness among women. In 1930 the Sharda Act was passed
fixing the minimum age for marriage for boys at 18 and girls at 14. Do you know that
Maharishi Karve was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his great work in the field of women’s
education? He started schools for girls, as well as working houses
for widows and destitutes. Soon this movement gained momentum
and many schools and colleges were opened for women.
Struggle against Caste System
Immense work has been done in this field by the Ramakrishn
Mission and the Arya Samaj. The Arya Samaj especially has
contributed a lot towards it by their Shuddhi Movement, that is, a
form of purification by which those Hindus who had converted to
Islam or Christianity could come back to their own religion.
Champions of the backward classes were B.R. Ambedkar and
Mahatma Gandhi. Ambedkar opened many schools and colleges
for their benefit. Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand,
championed the cause of untouchables whom he called
Harijans. He asked for temples to be thrown open to them
as well as for equal treatment to them.
Even the Constitution of Free India has given the legal and
constitutional support to this movement. Untouchability was
declared a punishable offence. But we still have a long way
to go to achieve our cherished goal of a society based on
complete equality and equity, a society where all the
members—men or women coming from any social or
economic background—are happy and their needs fulfilled.
And we will all have to work together to bring about such a
situation.
Swami Dayanand
Swami Dayanand’s greatest asset was his mastery over the
Sanskrit language and the Vedas. He felt that the myriad social
and religious evils which had crept into the Hindu society over
the centuries were due to the lack of true knowledge of the
Vedas. Therefore, he challenged the Hindu society on the issues
of idolatry and women education.
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the Ages In 1875, he founded the Arya Samaj. Its main aim was to propagate the true knowledge of
the Vedas and discard all evils that had crept into the Hindu society later in its name. He
opposed untouchability. He was similarly opposed to polytheism, avataravada and
ritualism. His slogan was ‘go back to the Vedas’ whose authority he accepted.
For the first time in the history of India, the Vedas were printed in India under his patronage.
Personally, his most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light of Truth).
In 1883, Swami Dayanand left his body after an eventful life. His followers started a
Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School and College in Lahore (now in Pakistan) in 1886.
This DAV movement has carried forward his work since then and now has over 750
institutions under one umbrella.
As a result of the works of these two pioneers and other equally well-known personalities
and organizations like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Radhakanta Deb, the Theosophical
Society and the Arya Samaj, a large number of people in eastern and north-eastern India
were substantially awakened and many of the social evils were banned with the help of the
Britishers.
Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-90)
Known popularly as ‘Jyotiba’, Jyotirao Govindrao
Phule was born in Pune (1827) in a lower caste family
of malis. According to him the only way to improve
the lot of the lower castes and women was through
education. So he opened a school especially for the
lower castes and also started the Satya Shodhak
Samaj in 1873. His main aim was to seek social justice
for the people belonging to the so-called untouchable
and backward classes. Recognition for this work
came to him in later years and he was elected to the
Poona Municipality as a member.
Pandita Rama Bai (1858-1922)
One of the most important names among women social reformers of this time in India and
more so, in Maharashtra, is that of Pandita Rama Bai. After her parents died, she along
with her brother continued to travel from place to place, giving discourses on the Puranas.
Consequently, her reputation as a scholar and religious speaker spread far and wide that
the pundits of Kolkata also invited her to address the people of the city. Everyone was
astounded by her knowledge and elocution. So people began calling her pandita, a title
bestowed on the learned women.
In 1882, Rama Bai moved back to Pune. Naturally, she was drawn to the Prarthana
Samaj, a reformation society which was propagating the message of the Brahmo Samaj in
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Maharashtra. Here, she also concentrated on improving the condition of women. In 1890, the Ages
she started Sharda Sadan, a home for widows.
Mahadev Govid Ranade, R.G. Bhadarkar, Dadabhai Naoroji, Behramji Malbari were
other well known personalities, who worked for social reforms in Western India.
5.5 PRESS AND THE GROWTH OF MODERN INDIAN
LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
In 1798, lithography was invented. It used the specially prepared surface of a stone for
printing a script, a picture, or drawing. A large number of copies of the same text could be
printed in this way. From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and books were
printed, which catered to the needs of the growing literate population of India. It was the
biggest boon which the West had conferred on India. As a result, by the end of the nineteenth
century, the press had become a powerful tool for influencing public opinion.
Since the new printing presses were not costly, their number grew at a fast pace. This, in
turn, encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in different Indian languages.
Their original works as well as translations and adaptations of old Indian and Western
classics helped enrich our cultural heritage. This helped to bring about an awakening of the
Indians.
Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were published almost in every language.
Although the total number of readers of newspapers was small as compared to their
number in the European countries, a whole new set of national literature in the form of
novels, essays and poems played a significant role in generating nationalism. Bankim
Chandra’s Anandamatha, Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s
Bharat Durdasha, Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese, Subramaniam Bharti’s
writing in Tamil and Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu stirred the minds of the Indians.
Role of Newspapers
Thus by the end of the nineteenth century the press in India had become a powerful and an
important instrument for creating, spreading, influencing and sharpening public opinion.
Consequently, the newspapers played a significant role in the dissemination of anti-British
feelings by discussing, criticizing and commenting on government policies and on major
social and economic issues. This helped in promoting a pan-Indian consciousness and in
giving important political education to the people of India.
Some important Newspapers
Bengal The Hindoo Patriot (English)
The Amrita Bazar Patrika (English)
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the Ages Bombay Maharatha (English), Kesari (Marathi)
Madras The Hindu (English), Swadeshmitran (Tamil)
Punjab The Tribune (English)
Kohinoor, Akhbar Am (Urdu)
5.6 INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Independent India can rightly be proud of her achievements too. One of the most important
achievements of post-independent India is the laying of a sound foundation for a secular
and democratic republic. The parliamentary system of governance adopted since
independence has stood the test of time and India is the largest parliamentary democracy
in the world today. Integration of the erstwhile princely states into the Indian union is
another major achievement. The reorganization of the states is still an ongoing process and
new states and union territories are being formed as per needs and desire of the people.
Economic planning has been introduced after independence to ensure the country’s
economic growth with social justice. As a result, India has made considerable progress in
the sphere of economic development, particularly in the field of agriculture and agrobased
industries. India has also made commendable progress in the fields of science and
technology. In the high technology areas also she is fast catching up with the highly developed
countries. India’s voice is now heard with respect in international meetings because of her
political and economic stability and diplomatic stature in the region. The issue of India
becoming a permanent member of the UN security council is similarly gaining wide
acceptance today.
5.6.1 Nationalist Movement—The Beginning
British imperialistic colonialism was the chief cause of India’s backwardness in every sphere.
Indians were now coming to realise this truth. The peasants and the workers were the
worst vicitims of British greed and apathy. The industrialists and the capitalists were also
not satisfied with the British rule. The intelligentsia at this time played a significant role.
They were the first ones to realise the true nature of British rule in India. Their initial hope
that the British would be benevolent rulers was shattered. Now they could see that the
British were greedy and selfish, guided by sheer personal self-interest and that of Britain in
general. By the 19th century all Indians were united in that, they had all realised they had a
common enemy—the Britishers, who were out to destroy India for their own benefit. The
Britishers did help in bringing about administrative and economic unification of the country.
They introduced the communication systems of railway, telegraph and post as well as
developed roads and motor transport, which contributed to this unification. Western thought
and education, that came to India with the British, helped in arousing the consciousness of
the Indian people. Modern ideas of democracy, humanism, nationalism and sovereignty of
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the people started guiding Indians towards nationalism. The press and literature played an the Ages
equally important role in spreading nationalistic feelings. There were many patriotic writers
who inspired the people with their writings. During the 19th century also came a revival of
the ancient glory of India. It was spearheaded by some enlightened Europeans, who studied
India’s past and brought out its depth and glory. Some eminent educated Indians also
contributed in this revival by spreading the awareness of it in the country. The racial
arrogance and discrimination on the part of the British rulers in India, the agitation of the
Britishers against the Ilbert Bill, Lord Lytton’s anti-India measures and the holding of the
lavish British King’s Durbar in India when many Indians were dying due to famine —all led
to the intensification of anti-British feelings among Indians. All these became the reasons
for the spread of nationalistic feelings in the country during the 19th century. These feelings
took the form of a nationalistic movement with the advent of the Indian National Congress,
started by A.O. Hume in 1885. The history of the Indian National Congress became the
history of the nationalist movement in India. The Congress did not achieve much politically
during this period, that is, in the first 20 years of its inception. But it did succeed in creating
political awareness and a feeling of unity. This phase can be called an era of moderates in
the national movement.
The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the British master
strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. The British were happy that they had succeeded in separating
the 62 million Muslims from the Hindus. Thus arose the evil monster of communalism in
our country.
The Home Rule Movement
The First World War broke out in 1914. The Congress decided to support the British. It
was believed, especially by the Moderates, that the British would be obliged to grant
freedom to India after the war. But it was soon realised that this hope would not be fulfilled
as the war was being fought to retain colonies. Consequently, two Home Rule Leagues
were set up during 1915-16. One was started by Tilak at Poona and the other by Annie
Besant at Madras. These Leagues aimed at the achievement of Swaraj or self-government.
They gave the Indian nationalists a definite goal to achieve. The movement avoided violent
or revolutionary methods. The Home Rule Leagues worked as auxiliary units of the
Congress.
5.6.2 1905-1918 Period
The period between 1905 and 1918 in our national movement is called the Era of Extremists.
The Extremists criticised the Modertates on these grounds—failure to define India’s political
goals, using mild and ineffective methods and failure to make the movement a mass
movement. The Extremists believed in direct political action and in demanding Swaraj or
self-rule instead of constitutional reforms. The radical faction of extremists was led by the
trio popularly known as - Lal, Bal, Pal i.e. Lala Laj Pat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and
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the Ages Bipin Chandra Pal, Bankim Chandra, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswari
and Aurobindo Ghosh inspired the extremist philosophy by their ideas and preachings.
Curzon’s repressive policies in India, which culminated in the partition of Bengal on communal
lines in order to ‘Divide and Rule’, became the immediate cause of agitation. There was an
agitation against the partition of Bengal. The means adopted were ‘Boycott’ of foreign
goods and adoption of ‘Swadeshi’ or indigeneously produced goods. The ‘Boycott’ and
‘Swadeshi’ soon spread and became countrywide movements. All sections of the society
including students and women became active in the agitaiton. It became a mass movement.
The British government used all kinds of violent repressive measures to supress it.
5.6.3 1919-1934 Period
The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms introduced Dyarchy in the provinces with the
Government of Indian Act, 1919. The Moderates welcomed these reforms, while the
Extremists rejected them. The Rowlatt Act was also passed in 1919 to supress political
violence. At this juncture appeared a new face in the political arena of India’s freedom
movement. This was Gandhi, who filled the vacuum created in the top leadership of the
Congress. Gandhi had led the movement against discrimination meted out to Indians in
South Africa. He had used the political weapon called Satyagraha (Truth force, or Love
force, or Soul force). His first triumph in India was the Champaran Satyagraha. This was
the beginning of the third phase of the freedom struggle which can be called the Gandhian
Era. A movement against the Rowlatt Act was launched. But Gandhi took it back because
violence erupted. He was strictly against violence. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took
place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919. More than 1000 people were massacred on the
orders of General Dyer. The Khilafat Movement started in November, 1919. The aim was
to pressurise the government to set right the wrongs done to the Muslims on the issue of
Turkey. The Khilafat Movement merged with the non co-operation movement under
Gandhi’s leadership. He issued a manifesto on 10th March, 1920 spelling out his philosophy
of non-violent, non co-operation. He laid down an elaborate programme of boycott of
anything British including jobs, courts, schools, colleges, functions and goods. A constructive
programme included promotion of Swadeshi, removal of untouchability and promotion of
Hindu-Muslim unity. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru planned to break the system from within
the councils under the banner of ‘Swaraj Party’. But it failed within three years.
Revolutionary activities were revived in 1922 and went on till 1934 sporadically. Prominent
revolutionaries included the names of Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Rajguru,
Sukhdev, Bismil, Ashfaqullah and many others. There were revolutionary communists like
M.N. Roy, Dange, and Muzaffar. Some communists were given long term sentences in the
Meerut conspiracy case. The Simon Commission was constituted in 1919 and sent to
India for reviewing the political situation. It had to face non-violence but bitter protest
demonstrations everywhere it went, as no Indian was included in the Commission. Lala
Lajpat Rai died of injuries he received in a lathi charge while leading a peaceful demonstration
at Lahore. An outline of a constitution for India was drawn as Nehru Report in 1928. In
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the Lahore Session of the Congress in 1929, the slogan of Purna Swaraj as the goal was the Ages
adopted; 26th January, 1930 was celebrated as independence day. Gandhi undertook
Salt Satyagraha, popularly known as Dandi March, on 6th April, 1930. The Civil
Disobedience Movement went on till 1934. In between there was the Round Table
conference. But the Movement had to be suspended. Gandhi retired from the Congress in
October 1934. Gandhi took up the cause of the ‘Depressed Classes’ and the
‘Untouchables’, whom he called ‘Harijans’. The Harijans Sewak Sangh was established.
5.6.4 Achievement of Independence
In 1935, Government of India Act was passed. It evolved a concept of All India Federation.
Provincial Autonomy was introduced. Only 14 per cent of the population could vote.
Separate electroates were provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians
and Europeans, among others. The Act discouraged the emergence of national unity,
encouraging separation and communalism. The Congress condemned the Act, but it decided
to take part in the elections. Elections were held in 1937. Congress Ministers were formed
in seven out of the eleven provinces. This brought relief to the people in various ways.
Socialist ideas grew both within the Congress as well as outside it. Prominent Congress
leaders like Nehru and Bose were also influenced by socialist ideas. The British policy of
divide and rule led to communalism. The British rulers started playing one community
against another. They tried to stem the rising nationalism by appeasing the Muslims and
inducing them to ask for privileges as ‘minority rights’. Communal electorates were aimed
at the same target of dividing and Indians and weakening the national unity. As a result of
communalism, the two-nation theory was evolved in 1938 and clearly spelt out by Jinnah
in 1940. Non-Muslim communalism never assumed such serious dimensions as the Muslim
communalism. It was rather a reaction to the latter. A session of the Hindu Mahasabha was
held at Benaras in 1933. The Arya Samaj established by Swami Dayanand and the Shuddhi
Movement under the auspices of the Samaj were important movements for strengthening
and purifying the Hindu community. Dr. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayam Sewak
Sangh (RSS). This was aimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people as well as
imbibing in them an intense spirit of nationalism. The ‘Shakha’ technique was evolved for
this purpose. When the Second World War started in 1939, the Congress demanded
complete independence. The Cripps Mission, in 1942 offered ‘Dominion Status’ to India
at the end of the war. The Congress rejected the offer. The Quit India Movement for
complete independence was launched by Gandhi and the Congress in August, 1942.
Movement under the leadership of Jai Prakash Narain were also active during this period.
The movement—both violent as well as non-violent—failed, but the British realised that
they will have to quit soon. Subhash Chandra Bose and Rash Behari Bose launched the
Indian Independence League and the Indian National Army (INA), also called Azad Hind
Fauj, at Singapore in 1943. With the help of the Japanese, the INA reached the Indian
borders and captured Kohima. But there was a reversal and Japan was defeated by the
British Army. The INA Movement also collapsed while Subhash Chandra Bose was
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the Ages reported killed in an air crash in August, 1945. After the end of the war, elections were
held in India in the beginning of 1946. The Congress won most of the seats. The Cabinet
Mission came to India in March, 1946 to speed up the transfer of power to Indians. It
published its recommendations on May 16. The Cabinet Mission Plan was an elaborate
one for the ultimate transfer of power. There was disagreement on the Plan between the
Congress and the Muslim League. In the course of events, the Viceory invited the Congerss
under Nehru to form an Interim Government. The Muslim League was furious and it
resulted in communal riots and a lot of bloodshed. The Interim Government could not do
anything as the League did not co-operate and stuck to their demand for a separate
Muslim country—Pakistan. British Prime Minister Attlee announced in February, the Plan
for the transfer of Power by June 1948. Lord Moundbatten was sent as Viceroy to India
in March to make arrangements for the same. The Congress had to accept the partition of
India due to many pressures, especially because of the widespread communal bloodshed
and the uncompromising attitude of the League and Jinnah. India became free on 15th
August, 1947 after partition. At the stroke of midnight (14th-15th August) transfer of
power took place.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.2
1.What is the method of printing done with the help of a specially prepared surface of a
stone to print a script called?
2. Who is the author of Anandamatha?
3.Who gave the slogan “back to the Vedas”?
4.When did Jyotiba Phule start the Satya Shodhak Samaj?
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The events like invention of the printing press, the Renaissance and Reformation in
Europe led to the spread of learning, which encouraged people to question dogmas.
India’s contact with the West had positive effects, as this led to a number of religious
and social reforms that challenged social evils such as the sati system, child marriage,
denial of widow remarriage, illiteracy, female infanticide and the caste system.
The followers of Swami Dayanand, a great Vedic scholar, founded the Arya Samaj in
1875 and fought against untouchability, polytheism, and idolatry and pleaded for equal
status for women.
The invention of lithography in 1798 was a milestone as it helped the Indians to set up
printing presses in many cities and start newspapers and journals. It also led to a
tremendous growth of the modern Indian languages.
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the Ages
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe the impact of Renaissance and Reformation Movement in Europe on
India?
2.Examine the role of Arya Samaj in the reform movement.
3.What was the contribution of Dayanand Saraswati in the field of education?
4.What is lithography? How has it been helpful in the growth of Indian langauges?
5.Examine the role of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the awakening of Indians.
6.Write an essay on India’s struggle for freedom.
ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
5.1
1.England
2.Tipu Sultan of Mysore
3.Three phases
5.2
1.Lithography
2.Bankin Chandra
3.Swami Dayanand
4. 1873
Indian Languages and Literature-I
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6
INDIAN LANGUAGES AND
LITERATURE-I
Sagar and Sameer went to Andaman and Nicobar Islands for a holiday. They had a
very good time out there playing in the sea and seeing so many small islands. But
they faced some problems also. They could not understand the langauge which the
local people were speaking. As a result they missed out on many things the tribals would
have told them about themselves. From this you can understand the importance of langauge.
Language is a medium through which we express our thoughts while literature is a mirror
that reflects ideas and philosophies which govern our society. Hence, to know any particular
culture and its tradition it is very important that we understand the evolution of its language
and the various forms of literature like poetry, drama and religious and non-religious writings.
This lesson talks about the role played by different languages in creating the composite
cultural heritage that characterises our country, India.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
examine the rich literary heritage of India;
develop an awareness of the variety of languages and literature in India;
list the different kinds of languages and literature in India;
appreciate the diversity and the underlying unity among the languages and
literature of India; and
recognise the important contribution of India to world literature.
Indian Languages and Literature-I
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6.1 INDIAN LANGUAGES: THE ROLE OF SANSKRIT
Ever since human beings have invented scripts, writing has reflected the culture, lifestyle,
society and the polity of contemporary society. In the process, each culture evolved its
own language and created a huge literary base. This literary base of a civilization tells us
about the evolution of each of its languages and culture through the span of centuries.
Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and
Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. There is also a variety of secular and regional
literature. By reading about the languages and literature created in the past, we shall be
able to understand our civilization better and appreciate the diversity and richness of our
culture. All this was possible because of the language that developed during that time.
Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-two languages
listed in the Indian Constitution .The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the most
ancient thought embodied in the Rig Veda, the oldest literary heritage of mankind, and the
Zend Avesta. It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically
during the eighteenth century. The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and its word
formation in his unrivalled descriptive grammar Ashtadhyayi. The Buddhist Sanskrit
literature includes the rich literature of the Mahayana school and the Hinayana school also.
The most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is a storehouse
of stories. While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied literary
material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa.
Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions and boundaries.
From the north to the south and the east to the west there is no part of India that has not
contributed to or been affected by this language. Kalhan’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed
account of the kings of Kashmir whereas with Jonaraja we share the glory of Prithviraj.
The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings.
Other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature include
‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa, ‘Mricchakatika’ by
Shudraka, ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. Some
other famous works are Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’ and Vatsyayana’s “Kamasutra’.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1
1.Name the most important ancient language of India.
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2.Which is the oldest literary heritage of mankind?
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6.2 THE VEDAS
The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit
and were handed down orally from one generation to the other. Do you know that
preservation of the Vedas till today is one of our most remarkable achievements. To be
able to keep such a literary wealth as the Vedas intact when the art of writing was not there
and there was a paucity of writing material is unprecedented in world history.
The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as
eternal and divine revelations. They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev
Kutumbakam.
There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. In later
years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.
Rig Veda
The Rig Veda is the earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
Many of these are beautiful descriptions of nature. The prayers are largely for seeking
worldly prosperity. It is believed that these recitations are the natural outpouring of Vedic
rishis experiencing a mentally transcendental stage. Some of the well-known rishis are
Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. The prominent gods
of the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi and the Ashwini twins.
Some of the prominent goddesses are Usha - the goddess of dawn, Vak - the goddess of
speech and Prithvi - the goddess of earth. Do you know that most of the hymns spoke of
universally recognised higher values of life such as truthfulness, honesty, dedication, sacrifice,
politeness and culture. The prayers are for seeking worldly prosperity and for the
development of a highly cultured society. Along with religion Rig Veda provides us
knowledge about social, political and economic condition of ancient India.
Yajur Veda
Yajur means sacrifice or worship. This Veda is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of
different sacrifices. It gives directions for the performance of the yajnas. It has both poetic
and prose renderings. Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most popular of the four Vedas.
There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda i.e.
Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. This text reflects on the social and religious
condition of India at that time.
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Sama Veda
Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical
notes. Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. The
Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. It may be
called the book of Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the development of Indian
music during this period.
Atharva Veda
The Atharva Veda is also known as the Brahma Veda. It contains treatment for ninety-nine
diseases. The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras. The
Atharva Veda is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an early period of
civilisation. It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka. This book gives detailed
information about the family, social and political life of later Vedic period.
In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the
Vedas. These supplements of the Vedas provide education (siksha), grammar
(vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology (nirukta), metrics (chhanda) and astronomy
(Jyotisha). A good deal of literature grew around these subjects. It was written in the form
of precepts in the sutra style. A precept was called sutra because of its brevity. The most
famous example of this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the rules of
grammar and also throws light on society, economy and culture of those times.
Brahmanas and Aranyakas
After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed. These
books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science
of sacrifice. The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the Aranyakas while the final
parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads which belong to the
later stage of the Brahmana literature. Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana
books. Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya. Taitteriya belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda
and Shatpath belongs to Shukla Yajur Veda. Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belongs to
Atharva Veda. It is through them that we get a detailed information of the social, political
and religious life of the people.
The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. These were studied and
taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living inside the forests.
All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially they were handed down orally and were put to
writing much later.
It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were
written. Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While
according to Lokmanya Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C.
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Distincion between Sruti and Smriti
Both sruti and smriti represent categories of texts that are used to establish the rule
of law within the Hindu tradition. Sruti is solely of divine origin and contains no
specific concepts of law. Because of the divine origin, it is preserved as a whole
instead of verse by verse. With sruti, the desire is more towards recitation and
preservation of its divine attributes and not necessarily towards understanding and
interpreting the oral tradition like that found in smriti.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.2
1.What does the word “Veda” mean?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the four Vedas.
_______________________________________________________________
3.What is the meaning of ‘Yajur’? What information does it give us of those times?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How many musical tunes originated from the Sama Veda?
_______________________________________________________________
6.3 THE UPANISHADS
The word Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-down), that is,
“sitting down near”. Groups of pupil sit near the Guru to learn from him in the Guru-shishya
parampara or tradition.
The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts of the
Vedas. As the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical
problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end. That is why they are called the end of
Vedas. Vedas start with the worship of the manifest, as that is obvious and then slowly
transform to the knowledge of the unmanifest
There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktika, gives a list of
108 Upanishads – this number corresponds to the holy number of beads on a mala or
Hindu rosary.
The Upanishads form an important part of our literary legacy. They deal with questions
like the origin of the universe, life and death, the material and spiritual world, nature of
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knowledge and many other questions. The earliest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka
which belongs to the Sukla Yajur Veda and Chand yogya which belongs to the Sama
Veda. Some of the other important Upanishads are the Aitareya, Kena, Katha Upanishad.
Try and find out some other important Upanishads on your own. Read them and you will
find a whole new world of Indian philosophy opening in front of you. There are more
books selling on the Upanishads. Start with the small stories. Get interested in them and
than go to the whole book of any Upanishad.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.3
1.What is the meaning of Upanishad?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name some important Upanishads.
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6.4 THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHABHARATA
Our two great epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana of Valmiki is
the original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya and Maharishi Valmiki is known as Adi Kavi.
The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal society. The other epic, the Mahabharata,
was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written in Sanskrit and contained 8800 verses
and was called “Jaya” or the collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24,000
and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the earliest Vedic tribes. The final
compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the Mahabharata
or the Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating
to conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana
have several renderings in different Indian languages. The Mahabharata contains the famous
Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today.
In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna
his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates
on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies
with examples and analogies. This makes Gita
a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a
parochial, self-contained guide to life. In
modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many
others used the text to help inspire the Indian
independence movement. This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke of positiveness
in human actions. It also spoke of duty towards God and human beings alike forgetting
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about the results. You will appreciate the fact that the Gita has been translated nearly in all
the main langauges of the world.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.4
1.Name the two ancient epics written in Sanskrit.
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who were the authors of the Ramayana and The Mahabharata?
_______________________________________________________________
3.In the Bhagvad Gita what does Krishna explain to Arjun?
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6.5 PURANAS
The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the Hindus. They are
regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics. There are said to be eighteen
Puranas and about the same number of Upapuranas. Some of the well known Puranas are
- Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya and Garuda. Their origin can be
traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was gaining importance and was a major
opponent of the Brahmanic culture.
Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages through
parables and fables. They have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives
of the people.
The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in the
Gupta period. They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the
education of the common people. These Puranas contain important geographical information/
histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies.
This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse. The
phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period. Amarasimha
the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five topics; (1) Sarga
(Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology) (4) Manvantara
(Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic history)
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.5
1.How many Puranas are there?
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2.Name a few characteristics of the Puranas.
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6.6BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE IN PALI,
PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents.
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and
South Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets -
Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and
regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and
deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It
includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge
and mataphysical problems.
The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most
interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was
finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed through more than 550
births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka. The
Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth
century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference to political
events in the age of the Buddha.
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to
Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism
helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These
works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Ancient Indian literature can be placed in two categories:
(a) Religiouis and non religious or secular. Religious literature has the
(a)four Vedas
- Rig Veda- the oldest of the Vedas contains 1028 hymns known as Sukta or
“Well said”.
- Sam Veda contains the hymns that are sung by a special class of priests at the
time of soma Sacrifice.
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- Yajur Veda-contains hymns that are recited at the time of ordinary sacrifice.
- Atharva Veda-collection of songs, spells, magical charms for the evil spirits, etc.
(b)The Brahmanas - attached to the Vedas. They explain in detail the value and
efficacy of sacrifices.
(c)Aranyakas- are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.
(d)Upanishads - Meant to be learnt sitting near the guru.
(e)Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
(f)Buddhist literature
(g)Jain literature
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.6
1.In which languages are the earliest Buddhist and Jain texts written?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the Tripitakas.
_______________________________________________________________
3.What do the Jataka tales tell us about?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name some Jain scholars.
_______________________________________________________________
6.7 OTHER SANSKRIT LITERATURE
We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and
grammar. To this class belong the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together
known as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC.
These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They
prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They
also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The
Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct
and relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state
of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
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The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with glimpses of
the social and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas and Harsha.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of
Panini and Patanjali.
Famous Sanskrit Authors of the Gupta Period
The Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and
most glorious times. The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature.
They helped liberally the scholars and poets of Sanskrit. This enriched the Sanskrit
langauge. In fact Sanskrit language became the language of cultured and educated
people. Many great poets, dramatists and scholars appeared during this period and
works in Sanskrit reached great heights.
1. Kalidas: Poet Kalidas wrote many beautiful poems and plays. His works in
Sanskrit are considered the gems of Literature. He wrote passionate plays and
poems. His wonderful skill is exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusambara.
Kumar Sambhavam and Raghuvamsha. His plays are Abhijan Shakuntalam,
Vikramorvashi and Malvikaganimithram.
2. Vishakhdutta: Vishakhdutta was another great play writer of this period. He
wrote two great historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Dev Chandra Gupta.
3.Shudraka: He wrote an exciting play Mrichchha Katikam or the Toy Cart. It is a
great source of socio-cultural conditions of that time.
4. Harisena: Among the great poets and play writers of the Gupta period was
Harisena. He wrote poems praising the valour of Samudra Gupta. It is inscribed
on Allahabad pillar.
5.Bhasa: He wrote thirteen plays which echo the lifestyle of the era along with its
prevalent beliefs and culture.
The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharitra
which is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fine
example of Sanskrit poetry.
India produced great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy, Astrology,
Agriculture and Geography etc.
Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta. Madhava wrote
a book on pathology. Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and
on astrology by Lagdhacharya had all achieved prominence. There is none that can compete
with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and Vedanga Jyotisha.
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The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir.
Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’s Rajatarangini are of historical importance.
It gives a vivid account of the Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the finest
poem of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on different aspects of
art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.7
1.What is the subject of the Dharmashastras?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Who wrote Rajatarangini?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Name a famous play by Kalidasa.
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name a work by Jaidev.
_______________________________________________________________
5.Name the author of the book on medicine.
_______________________________________________________________
6.8 TELUGU, KANNADA AND MALAYALAM LITERATURE
The four Dravadan languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam developed their own
literature. Tamil being the oldest of these langauges began writing earlier and produced the
sangam literature - the oldest literature in Tamil.
Telugu Literature
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a
court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam.
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of
great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu
literature. Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his
court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest.
He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha. The other seven poets of the group were
Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati,
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam, Pingali Surana
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composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former, he
attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
simultaneously. Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the
Krishnadevaraya’s court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted
with pleasure even today. Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam
which was considered one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti.
His other works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam. It is
a poetical work on the model of Raghavapandaviyam. One can read in it stories of Nala
as well as Harishchandra. Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a
prabandha dealing with the wars and loves of Rajashekhara, king of Avanti. Ayyalaraju
Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam and Sakalakathasara
Sangraham.
Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit
writers as well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.
Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar,
Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe. The Sanskrit works of the period include
Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of
Madhavacharya.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary
work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga
Amoghavarsha I. Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works
Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Pampa lived in the court
of Chalukya Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character
and development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled. Ponna and Ranna were two other poets
who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti
Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned
the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote
Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana. Under the patronage of later Hoysala
rulers, several literary works were produced. Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya.
Andayya’s Madana Vijaya or Kabbïgara Kava is a work of special interest in pure
Kannada without the mixture of Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s Suktisudharnava, the
first anthology in Kannada and Kesirja’s Shabdamanidarpana on grammar are two other
standard works in the Kannada language.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
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This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana.
Lakshamisha who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the
titled of Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of wisdom
and ethics. A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding
poetess in Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium
of ethics.
Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam
emerged around the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised
as an independent language.
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works.
Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam
literature. Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages,
Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of
journals, newspapers and magazines are published in Malayalam. When people read and
write in their own language, they enjoy it more. This is because language is a part of their
culture. It is so well inter woven in their social life that they can express and feel their
emotions as well in their own language. This, must also be the case with you and your
language also.
6.9 TAMIL OR SANGAMA LITERATURE
Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is,
therefore, no wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four
centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who in
these assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama literature
over a period of three to four centuries. Poets, bards and writers, authors came from
various parts of South India to Madurai. Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and
the literature produced in these assemblies was called “Sangama literature”. The contributions
of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated into many
langauges are noteworthy. The Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems
composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They are secular
in nature and of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. The poems collected
in the first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been
collected.
There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called
Ettuttokoi. There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen lower
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collections) and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is generally assumed to be older
than the latter, and considered to be of more historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work
‘Kural’ is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with
polity and government and the third part with love.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar
and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
These two were composed around the sixth century AD. The first is considered as the
brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a love story. The second epic was written
by a grain merchant of Madurai. These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of
Tamils from second century to sixth century AD.
From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars
(saints who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement
which engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent. During this period, Kambaramayanam and
Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary classic writers.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Heritage is the sum total of intellectual treasure that is passed on from one generation
to the other.
Sanskrit is the most ancient language of India.
Rig Veda is the oldest and the richest literary heritage of mankind.
The Upanishads have influenced the greatest philosophers of the world.
Our epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata still dominate the social ethos of our
country.
The Puranas provide the guiding light to the masses.
Jainism laid emphasis on good conduct and morality and preaches ahimsa, truthfulness
and austerity. Jataka tales are an invaluable source of knowing the thoughts and lives
of the people during that period. Buddhist sanghas became centres of great learning.
There are invaluable ancient treatises on law, political science, medicine, surgery, biology,
chemistry, and architecture.
Tamil literature is famous as Sangama literature.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.“Sanskrit is the root of many Indian languages”. Explain.
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2.Discuss the importance of the Upanishads.
3. Make a list of two Buddhist and Jain literatures and than write about two of their
works which you find interesting.
4.Write a short note on the following:
(i) Sangama literature
(ii) The Vedas
5.What is the story behind the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai?
6.What is the unique feature of Tarave’s Ramayana?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
6.1
1.Sanskrit
2.Rig Veda
6.2
1.Knowledge
2.Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda
3.It means sacrifice and worship. Social and religious condition of India at that time.
4.Sixteen thousand
6.3
1.Upanishad means to sit near the Guru.
2.Aitareya, Kena, Katha, Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya
3.Krishna tells Arjun about his duties as a warrior and elaborates on different philosophies
with examples and analogies.
6.4
1.The Ramayana and the Mahabharata
2.Valmiki and Ved Vyas
6.5
1.There are 18 Puranas and 18 Upapuranas.
2.The Puranas deal with the mysteries of creation, recreation dynastic genealogies.
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6.6
1.Pali and Prakrit
2.Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka
3.Previous births of Lord Buddha wherein he practiced Dharma.
4.Two important Jain scholars are Haribhadra Suri (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra
Suri (twelfth century AD)
6.7
1.Law
2.Kalhan
3. Abhigyana Shakuntalam
4. Geet Govinda
5.Charak
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7
INDIAN LANGUAGES AND
LITERATURE-II
Richness of any culture can been seen and appreciated but when it comes to language
and literature it is to be read and heard. We have to appreciate and take pride in
this particular aspect of our culture. We must make it a point to read as many
books writen during those times as it will help us to understand so many things that happened
in those times. It will help us to read more books and become familiar with so many things
that our happening around us today. In this lesson we will learn about the development of
modern Indian languages and their literature. We will also read about the role played by
the Christian missionaries in producing the earliest dictionaries and grammar of modern
Indian languages and the manner in which these have helped in the growth of modern
Indian literature. Besides these, we shall also get to know the role of the Bhakti movement
and nationalism in the development of modern Indian literature.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
trace the development of modern Indian languages;
examine the relationship between socio-cultural changes in the Indian society
and the literature in different Indian languages;
illustrate the unity and the underlying diversity in the Indian languages and their
literature; and
examine the contribution of Indian languages and their literature in the
renaissance of Indian society.
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7.1 NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES & LITERATURE
We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medieval period.
The old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of
evolving into other forms. These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the
written language. The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change.
The alphabets during Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the
letters had become of the same size and were regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated
hand.
The studies have indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except
that of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi. A long and slow process had given them
this shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily
understand this change. As for the spoken word, there are over 200 languages or dialects
spoken in India at present. Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular
area. Out of all these, only twenty-two have found their way into our Constitution.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and
Avadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila),
and Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or
dialect of Hindi. This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by
great poets over a length of time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been
given the name of Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called
Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know
it today is the one called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions
in the thirteenth century its extensive use in literature began only in the nineteenth century.
It even shows some influence of Urdu.
7.2 PERSIAN AND URDU
Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th century AD. Arabic
and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols.
Persian remained the court langage for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out
of the interaction between Hindi and Persian.
After the conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region. Urdu was
born out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the barracks with the common
people. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language
when the authors started using Persian script. It was further given an impetus by its use in
Bahamani states of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called
dakshini or daccani (southern). As time passed, it became popular with the masses of
Delhi.
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Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of
later Mughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry and
prose-started being composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote
poetry in it. Some of his couplets have become quite well known in the Hindi and Urdu
speaking areas.
Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left inimitable
poetry for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He
started writing as a poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam ud-din
Auliya. He is said to have composed ninty-nine works on separate themes and numerous
verses of poetry. Among the important works composed by him are Laila Majnun and
Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among other well-known poets are Ghalib,
Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available in his collection called Bang- i - dara.
His Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at many of the national
celebrations in India. No army parade is considered complete without the army band
playing this tune. In big Indian cities like Delhi these are many programmes in which famous
singers are invited to sing nazams or Ghazals written by famous poets like Ghalib, Maum,
Bulley Shah, Waris Shah besides many others. So you can imagine how rich our language
and literary culture must have been to continue till today. It has enriched our lives and is
central to people meeting and intermingling with each other.
Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar, who wrote the
famous Fasanah- i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi Prem Chand, who is supposed
to be a doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. Urdu has given us a new form of poem
that is called a nazm. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held
symposiums in this language. Slowly it became quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu
as the state language.
Development of Literature during the Mughal Period
There was a tremendous development in the field of literature during the Mughal
times. Babar and Humauan were lovers of literature. Baber was himself a great
scholar of Persian. He wrote a book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly
esteemed by the Turkish Literature. Humayun got the treatise translated into Arabic.
He too was a lover of learning and had establihsed a big Library. Humayun Nama,
tops the books written in his times.
Akbar was very fond of leaning. ‘Akbar Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas are
prominent among the books written during his time. Malik Muhammad Jayasis
Padmavat and Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also written during the same period.
Jahangir greatly patronized literature. Many scholars adorned his court. He too was
a scholar of a high caliber and wrote his life story. During Shah Jahan’s time there
was a well known scholar named Abdul Hameed Lahori. He wrote Badshah Nama.
The literary activities suffered during Aurangzeb’s time.
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Urdu literature started developing during the last days of the Mughal emperor. This
credit goes to Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib. The language of Sir Sayyid
Ahmed Khan was very simple and impressive. His compositions inspired the other
urdu writer Mirza Galib, who was a famous poet of his time. He made an important
contribution to uplift Urdu poetry. There were some other writers also who took
interest in Urdu poetry and enriched the Urdu literature. Maulvi Altab Hussain Ali,
Akbar Allahabadi and Dr. Mohammed Iqbal are some famous names.
As Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced in this period
was written in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in
Persian. Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj and Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came to India
during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important political events and incidents in this
language. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court language. Several
historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this language have come
down to us. The mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature. Babar wrote
his tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got it translated
into Persian. Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique piece of literature.
It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess. Quite a fair amount of
Persian literature has been produced by the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul Fazl’s
Akbarnamah and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From there we get a good
deal of information about Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry. Several
collections of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come down to us. Besides shedding
light on Mughal history, they indicate different styles of letter writing. Another name in
prose and history writing is that of Chandra Bhan, a writer of Shahjahan’s days. Similarly,
we have a work named Tabqat-i-Alamgïri, shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was
another writer who belonged during Akbar’s time. In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote
good Persian poetry. All this has now become a part of Indian heritage and culture.
Among the noted Hindu poets of this period were Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and
Rahim. Kabirs dohas are still so popular today while Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas
has become the most sacred book of the Hindus. Behari’s Satsai written during
Akbar’s reign is very famous. Alankarashekhara by Keshav Mishra was produced
in Akbar’s court. It was a great Sanskrit work on the styles of writing. Akbar also
got many Sanskrit books like Bhagwad Gita and Upanishads translated into Persian.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1
1.What are the various forms of Hindi language?
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2.Which language is used by Tulsidas for Ramcharitmanas?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How did Urdu language came into use in India?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Which coutry has Urdu as a state language?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What is Urdu langage called in Deccan?
_______________________________________________________________
7.3 HINDI LITERATURE
These was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese,
Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati during this time. In the South, Malayalam emerged as an
independent language in the 14th century The emergence of all these languages resulted in
the decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which the
administrative machinery functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these
regional langages by the various saints helped in their growth and development. We have
already noted the various dialects that developed in northern and western India. Prithviraj
Raso is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of
Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other rasos were written. The language went on
changing as the area where it was used expanded. New words to express new situations
were either coined or taken from areas coming under its influence. Hindi literature looked
to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was kept in mind by Hindi
writers. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started a movement in southern
India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influence reached the north, it started
affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed in Hindi. Poetry now became
largely devotional in nature. Some of the poets like Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language
which was of that region only, while others like Kabir, who moved from place to place
added Persian and Urdu words as well. Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit
Manas based on Valmiki’s Ramayana, he also alters situations and adds quite a few new
scenes and situations based on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in Valmiki’s
version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas has deified his hero while the
hero of Valmiki is a human being.
Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and
the 14th C. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi
Kala (early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and
poetry. The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern
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times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent and a variety of literature was produced
in Sanskrit.
Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad
indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the gopis. These poets
made a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. If the festivals associated with Rama
and Krishna have become so very popular, the credit goes to these poets. Their versions
became the source of inspiration not only for other poets but also for painters in the
medieval ages. They inspired Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan,
who, though a Muslim, sang in praise of Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti
poet. Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their subject was not devotion, but spiritual.
Bihari wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives us a glimpse of shringar (love)
and other rasas.
All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their sentiments essentially
to satisfy their own devotional instincts. Kabir did not believe in institutionalised religion.
He was a devotee of a formless God. Chanting His name was the be-all and end-all for
him. All these poets influenced the north Indian society in a manner that had never happened
earlier. As it is easier to remember poetry than prose, they became immensely popular.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern
India literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the
greatest Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel
Prize for literature (Geetanjali) in 1913.
However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its
own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi which
were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other languages. But he set the
trend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made
adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l 838-94) wrote novels originally in
Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram,
our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s
contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he
advocated Hindi as a common language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi
and contributed articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social reforms.
Satyartha Prakash was his most important work in Hindi. Among other names who have
enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu to
Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the
orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight
issues related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar
Prasad wrote beautiful dramas.
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Hindi Language Makes Progress in Modern Period
Hindi Language: The development of modern language started at the end of the 18th
century. The main writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu
Harishchandra also strengthened Hindi language. Similarly Raja Lakshman Singh translated
Shakuntala into Hindi. Hindi continued to develop in adverse circumstances as the office
work was done in Urdu.
Hindi Literature: Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, Ramchandra
Shukla and Shyam Sunder Das were the main among the prose writers of Hindi literature.
Jai Shanker Prasad, Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’,
Mahadevi Verma, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Haribans Rai ‘Bacchan’ made great
contribution to the development of Hindi poetry. Similarly Prem Chand, Vrindavan lal
Verma and Ellachandra Joshi wrote novels and enriched Hindi literature.
If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand
wrote in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social evils.
Munshi Prem Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of
the poor and Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian
award highlighted the conditions of women in the society. ‘Nirala’ became the pioneer of
awakening of Modern India.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2
1.Who is the author of Natya Shashtra?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What is the difference between the character of Rama in Valmikhi and Tulsidas?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How was Krishna’s role in Sur Sagar different?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Our national song Vandemataram is taken from which book?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Why do we feel that Hindi writers wrote with a purpose?
_______________________________________________________________
7.4 BENGALI, ASSAMESE AND ORTYA LITERATURE
After Hindi, the next significant literature was the one that developed in Bengal. The Baptist
Mission Press was established in Serampore near Calcutta in 1800. East India Company
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founded the Fort William College in the same year. It provided training to civil servants of
the Company in law, customs, religions, languages and literatures of India to enable them
to work more efficiently.
The growth of the Bhakti movement and the compositon of various hymns associated
with Chaitanya provided a stimulus to the development and growth of Bengali.
Narrative poems called the Mangal Kavyas also grew popular during this period.
They propatated the worship of local deities like Chandi and transformed Puranic
Gods like Siva and Vishnu into household deities.
In this regard, a very important landmark was achieved by William Carey, who wrote a
grammar of Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books on
dialogues and stories. It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in
the development of a literature. They guide the writers as to the correctness of a sentence
and also help them in finding suitable words for a particular situation and idea. Although the
aim of the press run by the missionaries was mainly to propagate Christian faith but other
presses run by local people helped in the flourishing of non-Christian literature. Scores of
pamphlets, small and big books and journals were produced. In the meantime education
spread, although at a very slow pace. But after 1835, when Macaulay won the battle
against Orientalists, it spread at a faster pace. In 1854 came Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch
and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established.
Besides textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature were also produced. However
it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides English that gave impetus to
Bengali literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-
86) were two other writers of this early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra
Chatterji (l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l876-1938), and R.C. Dutta, a noted
historian and a prose writer, all contributed to the making of Bengali literature. But the
most important name that influenced the whole of India was that of Rabindra Nath Tagore
(1861-1941). Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism, music and essays, all flowed from
his pen. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
However, a few things need to be noted about the influence of Western ideas which
permeated Bengal and later on other parts of India. Upto 1800, most of the literature
produced was limited to religion or courtly literature. The Western influence brought the
writers closer to the man in the street. The subjects were mundane. Some religious literature
was also produced but it hardly said anything new.
The final years of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century saw a
new subject, nationalism, being taken up. Two things were seen in this new trend. The first
was the love for old history and culture and an awareness of the facts of British exploitation.
The second was a clarion call for arousing the Indians to drive out the foreigners, both by
persuasion and force. This new trend was expressed by Subrahmanyam Bharti in Tamil
and Qazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali. The contributions of these two writers in arousing the
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nationalistic sentiments in the readers was tremendous. Their poetry was translated into
other Indian languages.
Assamese - Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement.
Shankardeva who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese
poetry. Even the Puranas were translated in Assamese.
The earliest Assamese literature consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Shankardev has
left several devotional poems, which people song with rapturous pleasure, but it was only
after 1827 that more interest was shown in producing Assamese literature. Two names,
Lakshmi Nath Bezbarua and Padmanaba Gohain Barua cannot be forgotten. From Orissa,
a couple of names are worth mentioning and these are Fakirmohan Senapati and Radha
Nath Ray, whose writings deserve considerable attention in the history of Oriya literature.
The works of Upendra Bhanja (1670 - 1720) were important as they ushered a new
period of Oriya literature. In Orissa the works of Saraladasa are regarded as the first
works of Oriya literature.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.3
1.When and were was Baptist Presss established?
_______________________________________________________________
2.When did Wood’s Derpatch come to India?
_______________________________________________________________
3.When and where were three universities opened?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Which work of Sh. R.N. Tagore won him Noble Prize in 1913?
_______________________________________________________________
5.How did Shan Karadwa help in the growth of Assamese poetry.?
_______________________________________________________________
7.5 PUNJABI AND RAJASTHANI LITERATURE
Punjabi is a language with several shades. It is being written in two scripts, Gurmukhi and
Persian. The Gurmukhi script till the end of the nineteenth century was almost limited to the
Adi Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs. Only a small number of people tried to learn the
script except the granthis, who recited the holy Granth in the gurdwaras. However, the
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language did not lack literature. Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi. Some other
contemporary poets, mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in this language. These Sufis or their
followers used the Persian script if they wanted to commit their poetry to writing. In this
list, the first name is that of Farid. His poetry has found a place in the Adi Granth. The Adi
Granth also contains poetry of the next four gurus. All this literature belongs to the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. Amongst the later gurus, the poetry of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh
Bahadur has also contributed to the Adi Granth. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, was
educated in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt Persian and Sanskrit. He has composed two
savaiyyas in Punjabi but these are not a part of the Adi Granth.
But it was the love stories of Heer and Ranjha, Sasi and Punnu and Sohni and Mahiwal,
which gave this language its theme in the early days. Even the story of Puran Bhagat found
favour with some poets. Beautiful poems written by some known and some unknown
poets have come down to us. These are being sung by local singers for the last two or
three hundred years. There are several other poetic stories which have been composed by
the locals. This folklore has been preserved. The most important of these is Heer of Waris
Shah. It is the most popular of the early works. It is a landmark in Punjabi poetry. Similar
is the popularity of Bulley Shah who was a Sufi saint. He has left a large number of songs.
One of his popular forms of compositions was called kafi; it was sung in a classical
musical form. Kafis are sung by people with great fervour.
In the twentieth century, Punjabi had come into its own. Bhai Vir Singh composed an epic,
named Rana Surat Singh. Puran Singh and Dr. Mohan Singh are among the best known
writers. Essays, short stories, poetry, novels, criticism and all other forms of writing have
adorned the Punjabi literary scene.
Rajasthani, a dialect of Hindi, had its own part to play. The bards (itinerant singers) moved
from place to place, providing entertainment and keeping the stories of heroes alive. It was
from these ballads that Colonel Todd collected the heroic stories of Rajasthan and put
them in the Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. But the devotional songs of Mira Bai
have a place of pride in the history of language as well as devotional music. Mira Bai’s love
for her lord (Lord Krishna) is sometimes so intense that it transcends this mundane world
and transports one to the land of this singer.
The development of the Bhakti movement led to the rise of the different regional
languages like Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu.
7.6 GUJARATI LITERATURE
Early Gujarati literature is available in the form of Bhakti songs of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. It still follows the old tradition which is popular in Gujarat. Narsi Mehta’s
name is the foremost in this respect. The people of Gujarat wove these devotional songs in
their folk dances and their religious forms often find expressions in their celebrations.
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Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to the Gujarati literature. Saraswati Chandra, a novel by
Govardhan Ram, has become a classic and has given great impetus to other writers. But
probably a name that cannot be forgotten is that of Dr. K.M. Munshi. He was a novelist,
an essayist and a historian, and has left a plethora of historical novels. In these books he
exhibits his ability to mix fact with fiction. Prithvi Vallabha is one of his finest novels. A
special mention must be made of Narsi Mehta whose songs in praise of Krishna not only
made him a very popular figure but also made Gujarati language popular.
7.7 SINDHI LITERATURE
Sindh was one of the important centres of Sufis, who established khanqahs at various
places. The Sufi singers with their devotional music made the language popular. The credit
for creating literature in Sindhi goes to Mirza Kalish Beg and Dewan Kauramal
7.8 MARATHI LITERATURE
Maharashtra is situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use.
Marathi grew out of these these local dialects. The Portuguese missionaries started using
Marathi for preaching their gospel.
The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in
the thirteenth century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He was the one
who started the kirtan tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (l 270-
1350), Gora, Sena and Janabai. All these sang and popularised the Marathi language.
Their songs are sung even today by the Verkari pilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur
pilgrimage. Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l 533-99) came on the scene. He wrote
the commentaries on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana. His songs are very popular
all over Maharashtra.
Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of
them all. Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers.
He was the devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth
century saw an upsurge in the Marathi literature. It was a nationalist movement that made
Marathi prose popular and prominent. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started his Journal
Kesari in Marathi. This helped the growth of Marathi literature. But the role of Keshav Sut
and V.S. Chiplunkar was no less. Hari Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote novels which
became very popular. All these prose writers made great contribution to the development
of Marathi literature. The name of H.G Salgaokar is remembered for writing inspirational
poetry. Besides, the names of M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T. Madholkar (poet and
novelist) are no less important.
7.9 KASHMIRI LITERATURE
Kashmir shot into literary prominence, when Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit
But this was in the language of the elite. For locals, Kashmiri was the popular dialect. Here
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also the Bhakti movement played its role. One Lal Ded, who lived in the fourteenth century,
was probably the first to sing in the Kashmiri language. She was a Shaivite mystic. After
Islam spread in this area, the Sufi influence also came to be visible. Haba Khatoon, Mahjoor,
Zinda Kaul, Noor Din also known as Nund Rishi, Akhtar Mohiuddin, Sufi Ghulam
Mohammad and Dina Nath Nadim wrote devotional poetry in Kashmiri. These people
contributed to the growth of Kashmiri literature.
The Western influence did not reach Kashmir till the end of the nineteenth century. In
1846, after the first Sikh War, the Dogras of Jammu became the rulers there. The Dogras
were more interested in Dogri language than in Kashmiri. There were hardly any schools
or education. There was widespread poverty and economic backwardness. All these led
to a lack of good literature in Kashmir.
Though the list of Modern Indian languages can have many languages, the constitution of
India has originally about 15 languages as national languages i.e. Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati,
Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Urdu, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam. Three more langauges i.e. Nepali, Manipuri and Konkani have been added
now to the list.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.4
1.Which Indian language was written in two scripts Gurumukhi and Persian?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name at least two love stories of Punjab?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Which was the popular forms of compositions of Bulley Shah?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name the novel of Govardhan Ram?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Who started Kirtan tradition in Maharashtra in the 13th century AD?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What reasons led to a lack of good literature in Kashmiri?
_______________________________________________________________
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7.10 ROLE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES
With the coming of the Europeans to India various foreign languages like English, French,
Dutch and Portuguese were introduced here which greatly enriched Indian langauges as
they added many new words to their vocabulary.
The contribution of the Christian missionaries in the development of Indian literature was
no less significant. First of all, they published dictionaries and grammar in several local
languages. The books written by them were meant for the newly arrived clergymen from
Europe. These books helped these missionaries as much as they helped the writers in the
local languages. They could easily turn to the dictionaries to find a suitable word or see if
the word was grammatically correct.
The second fact is the role of lithographic printing press, which was introduced in India in
the beginning of the nineteenth century. The foreigners had established these presses for
printing literature in local languages for the benefit of the new, or would-be converts.
Therefore, the role of printing press in the development of literature cannot be ignored.
The third important fact is the establishment of schools and colleges by the missionaries.
Here, besides English, the missionaries also taught the local languages. Perhaps their aim
was to spread Christianity but they also produced a newly educated class, who had a
desire to read their literature. Thus, the role of missionaries cannot be ignored while writing
the history of Indian languages and literature.
Main Writers of English Literature in India
In India there were many writers of the English literature. The Indians started writing
work in English after 1835, when English was made the medium of instruction.
Many Indian writers composd their literature in English. Some of them showed their
interest in the field of poetry, while some others showed their keen interest in prose
writing. Michael Madhu Sudan Dutta, Taradutta, Sarojini Naidu and Ravindranath
Tagore made important contribution in the field of English Poetry. Surendra Nath
Banerjee, Firoze Shah Mehta and Jawahar Lal Nehru showed interest in English
prose.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Hindi was spoken by a large number of people.
Urdu and Persian became popular in the Mughal era. Urdu was born out of the interaction
between Turkish settlers and the local people. Abul Fazl, Chandra Bhan and Badayuni
were famous writers of the Mughal era.
Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance. Bhakti poetry is a milestone
in Hindi literature. Kabir, Tulsidas and Surdas were the guiding light of Hindi literature.
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In the beginning of the nineteenth century Hindi prose came into existence.
Next to Hindi, the richest literature is that of Bengali. Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim
Chandra Chatterji and Sharat Chandra Chatterji contributed to the making of Bengali
literature. Assamese literature consisted of buranjis. Similar is the case with Oriya.
Till the end of the nineteenth century, Gurmukhi was limited to Adi Granth; it was the
love stories of Heer Ranjha which gave this language a theme. The devotional song of
Meera Bai gave a place of honour to Rajasthani language and literature.
Gujarati, Sindhi, Marathi and Kashmiri also developed their literature in due course of
time.
Many Indian writers compsoed their writings in English.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.What was the role of the Christian missionaries in India?
2.Briefly describe the development of Hindi language?
3.Explain the role of Persian langauge in medieval India?
4.Identify the contributions of Indian languages and literature in shaping of Indian society?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
7.1
I. 1.Braj Bhasha, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Rajasthani, Khadi Boli.
2.Avadhi
3.Urdu langauge was born out of the interaction of Turkish settler with locals.
4.Pakistan
5.Dakshini or Daccani (southern)
7.2
I.1.Bharata
2.Tulsidas’ Rama is portrait as God while in Valimikhi’s He is portrait as Human
being.
3.Krishna as a young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in delliance
with the goppies.
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4.Anand Math
5.Swami Dayanand wrote in order to reform Hindu society. Munshi Premchand
wrote about the miserable existance of the poor. Mahadevi Verma wrote about
the plight of women.
7.3
I.1.In 1800 at Seerampur near Calcutta.
2. 1854
3.In 1857, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
4.Geetanjali
5.He introduced Vaishnavism in Assam.
7.4
I.1.Punjabi
2.Heer/Ranjha, Sohni/Mahiwal, Sasi/Punnu
3.Kafi
4.Saraswati Chandra
5.Saint Jnaneshwar
6.Poverty, economic backwardness and the use of Dogri.
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8
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY IN
ANCIENT INDIA
As soon as November and December come in we find new calenders flooding the
market. Some calenders are very colourful. They are marked with different colours.
Some even have small pictures on the dates. They are holidays and we look
forward to them. You also look forward to them. Yes, they are religious festivals or national
festivals and India has plenty of religions that are flourishing. Processions on the road,
good food, clothes, gifts, people worshipping in their religious places, wishing each other
is a common sight. Yes, India is a beautiful, lovely and a lively country to be in. This is
bacause religion has always been a significant factor in influencing the lives of people in
India from the earliest times. It would, indeed, be very interesting to study religion in its
diverse forms through the various stages of its growth. The relationship between religion
and philosophy has been an intimate one and hence their growth and development need to
be studied in an interrelated manner. In this lesson you will study about the development of
religions and philosophy in ancient India.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
explain the meaning of religion;
identify the characteristics of various religions movements in ancient India;
explain the ideas of the six schools of Vedïc philosophy;
examine the role played by the Charvaka School;
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explain the Jaina theory of reality;
examine the contributions of Buddhist philosophy.
8.1 RELIGION
Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion. Religion
played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. It assumed
numerous forms in relation to different groups of people associated with them. Religious
ideas, thoughts and practices differed among these groups, and transformations and
developments took place in the various religious forms in course of time. Religion in India
was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.
Every system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same,
always and everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purpose
remains the same – trying to reach that Truth.
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world tolerance and universal
acceptance .. We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions
as true.”
– Swami Vivekananda at Parliament of world Religions in Chicago 1893
Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of the
land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence. Indian
sages called Rishis or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the sense and
the ordinary mind, collectively called yoga. With the help of these techniques, they delved
deep into the depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the true
nature of human being and the universe.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which
are ever changing and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortal and pure
consciousness. They called it the Atman.
The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishis
further found that all individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness which they called
Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ultimate cause of the universe. Ignorance of
human’s true nature is the main cause of human suffering and bondage. By gaining correct
knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free from suffering and bondage
and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and fulfillment known as Moksha.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his true
nature and attain Moksha.
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Thus philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the correct way
of life; philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment; philosophy
was the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus in ancient India, philosophy and religion
complemented each other.
‘May we hear that which enlightens our minds, may we see Divinity everywhere,
may we feel the presence of the Almighty within us and all the actions of our bodies
and minds be in the service of that Almighty Being; may we have peace unending’.
– (Rig-Veda 1-89)
8.2 PRE-VEDIC AND VEDIC RELIGION
From the archaeological findings in the pre and proto-historic sites it seems that these
people believed in the sanctity of the creative force and venerated the male and female
aspects of divinity. It appears that they were worshippers of the forces of nature like the
sun and the moon. This belief is also partly substantiated by the early literature of the
Aryans. The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from
the Rig Veda, They believed in many gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
Sacrifices, and ritual offering of food and drink to fire in honour of the Gods, constituted
the main religious practices. The Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda elaborated the different
aspects of the sacrificial acts and this ritualism was further elaborated in the Brahmanas.
The Atharva Veda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs. The seers entertained doubts
about the utility and efficacy of the Vedic ritualism. Polytheism was challenged by
monotheistic ideas and the various deities were introduced as different ways of naming
one eternal entity.
The Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook.
The Upanishads, represent the early stage in the origin and development of the religionsmetaphysical
concepts which were used later by the religious leaders and reformers of
ancient and medieval India. Some of them followed the traditional lines while others
proceeded along the paths of unorthodoxy.
India down the ages attempted to grapple with the fundamental problems of life
and thought. Philosophy in India began with a quest after the highest truth- truth
not as mere objective certitude, but as being closely linked with the development
of personality and leading to the attainment of the highest freedom, bliss and
wisdom. It demanded, therefore, not only a philosophical discipline of reasoning,
but also a discipline of conduct and the control of emotions and passions.
Thus the synthesis between deep philosophical analysis and lofty spiritual discipline
is an abiding feature of Indian philosophy and its outlook is entirely different from
that of western philosophy.
It is hoped that it will serve not only to make plain the spiritual aspirations of an
ancient nation, but also to show the relevance of those aspirations to the modern
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world and thus forge a powerful link in the chain of human fellowship and universal
concord.
Philosophy in India is not a product of speculation but of experience, direct and
personal. A true philosopher is he whose life and behaviour bear testimony to the
truths he preaches.
8.3 UNORTHODOX RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
The religious movements associated with persons like Mahavira and the Buddha in about
the middle of the first Millennium BC fall under this category. There were many other
creeds during this time as well. The creeds preached by some of them contained elements
that were not in keeping with the Vedic tradition. They ignored the infallibility and supernatural
origin of the Vedas. Unlike the Vedic seers who were Brahmin sages, many of these new
teachers were Kshatriya. Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the beginning.
However, Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma and upheld the belief in
rebirths of the embodied skandhas and the inevitability of suffering in the very existence of
beings. Many of these view points are also found in the major Upanishads.
8.4 THEISTIC RELIGIONS
Creeds of theistic character evolved almost simultaneously with the non-theistic religions.
The important deities of these religions were not primarily Vedic ones but those that came
from unorthodox sources. Influence of pre-vedic and post-vedic folk elements were most
conspicuous in their origin. The primary factor that motivated these creeds was Bhakti, the
single-souled devotion of the worshipper to a personal god with some moral link. This led
to the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Saktism, which
came to be regarded as components of orthodox Brahminism. These sects in course of
time came to have a significant impact on the popular forms of Buddhism and Jainism.
8.5 FOLK CULTS
The worship of Yakshas and Nagas and other folk deities constituted the most important
part of primitive religious beliefs, in which Bhakti had a very important role to play. There
is ample evidence about the prevalence of this form of worship among the people in early
literature as well as in archaeology.
Vasudeva/Krishna Worship: A Sutra in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to the worshippers
of Vasudeva (Krishna). The Chhandogya Upanishad also speaks of Krishna, the son
of Devaki, a pupil of the sage Ghora Angirasa who was a sun-worshipping priest. A
large number of people worshipped Vasudeva Krishna exclusively as their personal
God and they were at first known as Bhagavatas. The Vasudeva-Bhagavata cult
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grew steadily, absorbing within its fold other Vedic and Brahminic divinities like Vishnu
(primarily an aspect of the sun) and Narayana (a cosmic God). From the late Gupta
period the name mostly used to designate this Bhakti cult was Vaishnava, indicating the
predominance of the Vedic Vishnu element in it with emphasis on the doctrine of incarnations
(avataras).
8.6 VAISHNAVA MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH
The history of the Vaishnava movement from the end of the Gupta period till the first
decade of the thirteenth century AD is concerned mainly with South India. Vaishnava
poet-saints known as alvars (a Tamil word denoting those drowned in Vishnu-bhakti)
preached single-minded devotion (ekatmika bhakti) for Vishnu and their songs were
collectively known as prabandhas.
8.7 SHAIVISM
Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had its origin in antiquity. Panini refers to a group of Shiva-
worshippers as Shiva-bhagavatas, who were characterised by the iron lances and clubs
they carried and their skin garments.
Shaiva Movement in the South: The Shaiva movement in the South flourished at the beginning
through the activities of many of the 63 saints known in Tamil as Nayanars (Siva-bhakts).
Their appealing emotional songs in Tamil were called Tevaram Stotras, also known as
Dravida Veda and ceremonially sung in the local Shiva temples. The Nayanars hailed
from all castes. This was supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva
intellectuals whose names were associated with several forms of Shaiva movements like
Agamanta, Shudha and Vira-shaivism.
The philosophy must give a theory which will be simplest in its nature and, at the
same time, will explain all the principles which are left as insoluble by science. At the
same time will harmonize with the ultimate conclusions of science as well as establish
a religion which is universal and is not limited by sects or doctrines or dogmas.
When we are concerned with philosophy as a science, it means a set of thoughts put
into a system, such that one of them does not contradict another in the set and the
entire set as a whole is coherent.
‘Science means knowledge partially unified, while philosophy means knowledge
completely unified …. Beyond the knowable is the unknowable, but in that realm of
the unknowable laid the solution of all the principles regarding the nature of the soul,
of the heavens, of God and everything.’
– Herbert Spencer
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8.8 MINOR RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
Worship of the female principle (Shakti) and of Surya did not achieve equal importance as
the other two major brahminical cults. The female aspect of the divinity might have been
venerated in the pre-Vedic times. In the Vedic age respect was shown also to the female
principle as the Divine Mother, the Goddess of abundance and personified energy (Shakti).
However, clear reference to the exclusive worshippers of the Devi is not to be found until
a comparatively late period. As mentioned earlier, Surya has been venerated in India from
the earliest times. In Vedic and epic mythology, Sun and his various aspects played a very
important part. The East Iranian (Shakadvipi) form of the solar cult was introduced in
parts of northern India in the early centuries of the Christian era. But it was only at a
comparatively late period that god figured as the central object in religious movements.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.1
1.Which sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Which doctrine was endorsed by Buddhism?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Name the sects which made Buddhism and Jainism popular?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How did Vedic age respect female principle?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What are the different forms of Shaiva movements?
_______________________________________________________________
8.9 VEDIC PHILOSOPHY
Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly of
worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true
nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate
reality were developed. These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different
schools of philosophies called shada darshana. They fall in the category of the orthodox
system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognised by all of them. Let us now find out
more about these six schools of Indian philosophy.
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Samkhya System
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female and
the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively. Prakriti and Purusha are completely
independent and absolute. According to this system, Purusha is mere consciousness, hence
it cannot be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three attributes,
thought, movement and the change or transformation of these attributes brings about the
change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between
Purusha and Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe. The propounder of this
philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra.
Infact Samkhya school explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and answered
all the questions aroused by the thinkers of those days.
Yoga
Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is found in
the Yogasutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second century BC. By
purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga systematically brings about
the release of purusha from prakriti. Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense
organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered a means of achieving freedom or mukti.
This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of rules
(niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object
(pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana)
and complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi). Yoga admits
the existence of God as a teacher and guide.
Nyaya
Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya, valid knowledge
is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as it exists. For
example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. Nyaya system of
philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe. Gautama is
said to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras.
Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe. The
reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which are substance,
attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence. Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all
objects of the universe are composed of five elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether.
They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded or punished
according to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and demerit. Creation and
destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took place in agreement with the wishes
of God. Kanada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika philosophy.
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A number of treatises were written on this text but the best among them is the one written
by Prashastapada in the sixth century AD.
Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained the phenomena of the universe by the atomic
theory, the combination of atoms and molecules into matter and explained the mechanical
process of formation of Universe.
Mimamsa
Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of
the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda. According to Mimamsa
philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment
of duties prescribed by the Vedas. This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika
systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. Its main text is known as the
Sutras of Gaimini which have been written during the third century BC. The names associated
with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits
of one’s actions, the law of righteousness itself. This system lays stress on the ritualistic
part of Vedas.
Vedanta
Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of the Vedas.
Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the
Bhagavad Gita. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known
as Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman.
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman
are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the
highest truth and the ultimate knowledge. He also believes that there is no distinction
between Brahman and the self. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and
the ultimate existence. Ramanuja was another well known Advaita scholar.
Among different schools of philosophy was found one philosophy which reached the climax
of philosophic thought that the human mind can possibly reach, and that is known as the
Vedantic philosophy.
Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny the existence of the apparent ego, as known to
us, and in this respect Vedanta has its unique position in the history of philosophies of the
world.
Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths that
have been discovered by the greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all
ages and all countries.
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Vedanta philosophy teaches that all these different religions are like so many roads, which
lead to same goal.
Vedanta (the end of the Vedas or knowledge) refers to the Upanishads which appeared at
the end of each Veda with a direct perception of reality.
The core message of Vedanta is that every action must be governed by the intellect – the
discriminating faculty. The mind makes mistakes but the intellect tells us if the action is in
our interest or not. Vedanta enables the practitioner to access the realm of spirit through
the intellect. Whether one moves into spirituality through Yoga, meditation or devotion, it
must ultimately crystallize into inner understanding for atitudinal changes and enlightenment.
8.10 CHARVAKA SCHOOL
Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy. It finds
mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyka Upanishad. Thus it is supposed to be the earliest
in the growth of the philosophical knowledge. It holds that knowledge is the product of the
combination of four elements which leaves no trace after death. Charvaka philosophy
deals with the materialistic philosophy. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the
philosophy of the masses.
According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and
pleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material
world. Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by
Charvakas. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not
recognise ether as it is not known through perception. The whole universe according to
them is thus consisted of four elements.
8.11 JAIN PHILOSOPHY
Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they admit the existence
of a soul. They also agree with the orthodox tradition that suffering (pain) can be stopped
by controlling the mind and by seeking right knowledge and perception and by observing
the right conduct. The Jaina philosophy was first propounded by the tirthankar Rishabha
Deva. The names of Ajit Nath and Aristanemi are also mentioned with Rishabha Deva.
There were twenty-four tirthankaras who actually established the Jaina darshan. The
first tirthankar realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath. The twenty-
fourth and the last tirthankar was named Vardhaman Mahavira who gave great impetus
to Jainism. Mahavira was born in 599 BC. He left worldly life at the age of thirty and led
a very hard life to gain true knowledge. After he attained Truth, he was called Mahavira.
He strongly believed in the importance of celibacy or brahamcharya.
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Jain Theory of Reality: Seven Kinds of Fundamental Elements
The Jainas believe that the natural and supernatural things of the universe can be traced
back to seven fundamental elements. They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya, bandha, samvara,
nirjana, and moksa. Substances like body which exist and envelope (like a cover) are
astïkaya. Anastikayas like ‘time’ have no body at all. The substance is the basis of
attributes (qualities). The attributes that we find in a substance are known as dharmas.
The Jainas believe that things or substance have attributes. These attributes also change
with the change of kala (time). From their point of view, the attributes of a substance are
essential, and eternal or unchangeable. Without essential attributes, a thing cannot exist.
So they are always present in everything. For example, consciousness (chetana) is the
essence of the soul; desire, happiness and sorrow are its changeable attributes.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2
1.How many schools of Shada Darshan exist?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the founder of Samkhya Philosophy?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who is the originator of Yoga?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who is said to be the author of the nyaya Sutras?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Which school of philosophy says Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What is the philosophy of the Upanishad?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Which school holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements
which leaves no trace after death?
_______________________________________________________________
8.How many ‘tirthankaras’ does Jaina Darshan have?
_______________________________________________________________
9.When was Mahavira born?
_______________________________________________________________
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10.Which ‘tirthankara’ was named Vardhman Mahavira?
_______________________________________________________________
11.Name the seven fundamental elements of Jainas?
_______________________________________________________________
8.12 PHILOSOPHY OF THE BUDDHA
Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BC at Lumbini,
a village near Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal. His childhood name was Siddhartha.
His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a few days old. He was married to
Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen. After a year of the marriage, he had
a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha renounced
family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty,
etc. He went to the forests and meditated there for six years. Thereafter, he went to Bodh
Gaya (in Bihar) and meditated under a pipal tree. It was at this place that he attained
enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha. He then travelled a lot to spread his
message and helped people find the path of liberation or freedom. He died at the age of
eighty.
Gautama’s three main disciples known as Upali, Ananda and Mahakashyap remembered
his teachings and passed them on to his followers. It is believed that soon after the Buddha’s
death a council was called at Rajagriha where Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of
the order) and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s sermons or doctrines and
ethics). Sometime later the Abhidhamma Pitaka consisting of the Buddhist philosophy
came into existence.
Main Characteristics
Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people could follow
easily. He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek liberation from this
painful world. He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas.
Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind and ultimate
liberation from this material world.
Realization of Four Noble Truths. The knowledge realized by Buddha is reflected in
the following four noble truths:
a. There is suffering in human life. When Buddha saw human beings suffering from
sickness, pain and death, he concluded that there was definitely suffering in human life.
There is pain with birth. Separation from the pleasant is also painful. All the passions
that remain unfulfilled are painful. Pain also comes when objects of sensuous pleasure
are lost. Thus, life is all pain.
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b. There is cause of suffering, The second Noble Truth is related to the cause of
suffering. It is desire that motivates the cycle of birth and death. Therefore, desire is
the fundamental cause of suffering.
c. There is cessation of suffering. The third Noble Truth tells that when
passion, desire and love of life are totally destroyed, pain stops. This Truth leads to the end
of sorrow, which causes pain in human life. It involves destruction of ego (aham or
ahamkara), attachment, jealousy, doubt and sorrow. That state of mind is the state of
freedom from desire, pain and any kind of attachment. It is the state of complete
peace, leading to nirvana.
d. Path of Liberation. The fourth Noble Truth leads to a way that takes to liberation.
Thus, initially starting with pessimism, the Buddhist philosophy leads to optimism.
Although there is a constant suffering in human life, it can be ended finally. Buddha
suggests that the way or the path leading to liberation is eight-fold, through which one
can attain nirvana.
Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana)
(i)Right Vision. One can attain right vision by removing ignorance. Ignorance creates
a wrong idea of the relationship between the world and the self. It is on account of
wrong understanding of man that he takes the non-permanent world as permanent.
Thus, the right view of the world and its objects is the right vision.
(ii) Right Resolve. It is the strong will-power to destroy thoughts and desires that
harm others. It includes sacrifice, sympathy and kindness towards others.
(iii) Right Speech. Man should control his speech by right resolve. It means to avoid
false or unpleasant words by criticizing others.
(iv) Right Conduct. It is to avoid activities which harm life. It means to be away from
theft, excessive eating, the use of artificial means of beauty, jewellery, comfortable
beds, gold etc.
(v)Right Means of Livelihood. Right livelihood means to earn one’s bread and
butter by right means. It is never right to earn money by unfair means like fraud,
bribery, theft, etc.
(vi) Right Effort. It is also necessary to avoid bad feelings and bad impressions. It
includes self-control, stopping or negation of sensuality and bad thoughts, and
awakening of good thoughts.
(vii) Right Mindfulness. It means to keep one’s body, heart and mind in their real
form. Bad thoughts occupy the mind when their form is forgotten. When actions
take place according to the bad thoughts, one has to experience pain.
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(viii) Right Concentration. If a person pursues the above seven Rights, he will be able
to concentrate properly and rightly. One can attain nirvana by right concentration
(meditation).
Except for Charvaka school, realisation of soul has been the common goal of all
philosophical schools of India.
According to Victor Cousin, the great French Philosopher, ‘India contains the whole
history of philosophy in a nutshell’. Again he says: ‘When we read with attention the
poetical and philosophical monuments of the East, above all those of India, which
are beginning to spread in Europe, we discover there many a truth and truths so
profound, and which make such a contrast with the meanness of the results at which
the European genius has sometimes stopped. That we are constrained to bend the
knee before the philosophy of the East, and to see in this cradle of the human race
the native land of the highest philosophy.’
I am sure you would like to know more about Buddhism. We will go to Bodhgaya in Bihar.
Tread reverently along this ancient path. Begin with the Mahabodhi tree where something
strange happened - realization of truth or spiritual illumination. Tradition states that Buddha
stayed in Bodhgaya for seven weeks after his enlightenment.
There you must also see the Animeshlocha Stupa which houses a standing figure of the
Buddha with his eyes fixed towards this tree. Bodhgaya is also revered by the Hindus who
go to the Vishnupada temple to perform ‘Pind-daan’ that ensures peace and solace to the
departed soul.
You can also visit Rajgir and empathise with the Chinese traveller Fa-hein who visited this
place 900 years after the death of Buddha. He wept over the fact that he was not fortunate
enough to listen to the sermons of Buddha that were delivered here. Many stories which
you might have read about Buddha have their origin here. Imagine Buddha on his first alms
begging mission while staying in a cave here. It was here that the Mauryan king Bimbisara
joind the Buddhists order. Remember reading the story how a mad elephant was let loose
by Devadutta to kill Buddha. Well, this incident took place here. Finally it was from Rajgir
that Buddha set out on his last journey. The first Buddhist Council was held in the Saptaparni
cave in which the unwritten teachings of Buddha were penned down after his death. Even
the concept of monastic institutions was laid at Rajgir which later developed into an academic
and religious centre.
In your lesson on Architecture, you will read about Nalanda university. It was established
in the 5th century BC. It is the world’s earliest university. Since Buddha encouraged learning,
monks and scholars gathered here for discourses. So much so that by 5th B.C., Nalanda
acquired the position of a well established monastery under the Guptas.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3
1.What was the childhood name of Gautama Buddha?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Where did Gautama Buddha meditate?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where did Gautama Buddha get enlightenment?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What does the Sutta Pitaka contain?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Who recited the Vinaya Pitaka?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What are the four noble truth of Gautama Buddha?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Which philosophical school of India has difference of opinion about realization of
soul?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Origin of religion can be traced to the pre-vedic society.
Developments in religion in ancient India proceeded along the traditional lines as well
as along the paths of unorthodoxy.
The systems of Indian philosophy that originated from the Vedas are called Orthodox
systems.
Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of the self and non-self that is
purusha and prakriti.
Yoga is a very practical philosophy to realise the ‘Self’.
Nyaya presents a technique of logical thinking.
Vaisheshika gives us the principles of reality which constitute the universe.
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Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of the Vedic scriptures.
Charvakism, Jainism and Buddhism are known as the unorthodox systems.
Charvaka is the materialistic philosophy, it believes that there is no existence other
than matter.
According to Jain philosophy, liberation is the escape of jiva from matter (body).
Buddha reflected his knowledge in four noble Truths (i) There is suffering in human life
(ii) There is cause of suffering (iii) There is end to suffering and (iv) There is way to end
suffering.
Buddha suggested eight fold path for liberation. These are: (i) right vision (ii) right
resolve (iii) right speech (iv) right conduct (v) right means of livelihood (vi) right effort
(vii) right mindfulness and (viii) right concentration.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Define the various characteristics of religious movements of ancient India?
2.What was the role played by Charvaka School in the religious movement of India?
3.How does the Charvaka School differ from the other philosophical schools?
4.Explain how Shada Darshana falls in the category of an orthodox system.
5.How does Buddhist philosophy contribute to become a better human being?
6.How can you say that Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of Vedic scriptures?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
8.1
1.The Aranyanka and Upanishad
2.Law of Karma
3.Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Saktism
4.Divine mother, the goddess of abundance and personified energy(shakti).
5.Agamanta, Shudha and Vira-shaivism
8.2
1.Six
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2.Kapila who wrote the Samkhya sutras.
3.Yogasutra of Patanjali
4.Gautama
5.Mimamsa school
6.Vedanta, the concluding portion of Vedas.
7.Charvaka School
8. 24
9. 599 B.C.
10.Twenty fourth or the last tirthankar.
11.Jiva, Ajivaa, Astikaya, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjana, Moksa.
8.3
1.Siddhartha
2.Under a Peepal tree at Bodh Gaya, Bihar
3.Bodh Gaya, Bihar
4.Buddha’s sermons, or doctrines and ethics.
5.Upali
6.There is suffering in human life.
There is cause of suffering.
There is cessation of suffering.
Path of Liberation.
7.Charvaka School
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9
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY IN
MEDIEVAL INDIA
Nearly every month a programme is going on in any auditorium in the city where
songs of the Sufi saints and Bhakti saints are sung. The popularity of these
programems can be seen from the attendance that is there. They are patronized
by the government, by big business houses and even by individuals. The songs and the
teachings of the Sufi and the Bhaki saints are relevant even today. Do you know the
medieval period in India saw the rise and growth of the Sufi movement and the Bhakti
movement. The two movements brought a new form of religious expression amongst
Muslims and Hindus. The Sufis were mystics who called for liberalism in Islam. They
emphasised on an egalitarian society based on universal love. The Bhakti saints transformed
Hinduism by introducing devotion or bhakti as the means to attain God. For them caste
had no meaning and all human being’s were equal. The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an
important role in bringing the Muslims and Hindus together. By using the local language of
the people, they made religion accessible and meaningful to the common people.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
understand the reasons for the rise of Sufism and Bhakti movements in Medieval
India;
trace the growth of the Sufi movement;
identify the major silsilahs of the Sufis;
explain the main tenets of Sufism;
explain the philosophy of the Bhakti saints, Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak;
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rise of Sikhism;
explain the ideology of the Vaishnavite saints;
recognise the contribution of Sufi and Bhakti saints towards the growth of a
composite Indian culture.
9.1 THE SUFI MOVEMENT
Background-Rise of Islam
You will recall that Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many
religious and spiritual movements within it. These movements were centered mainly around
the interpretation of the Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam - the
Sunnis and Shias. Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran,
Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find followers of only one of them.
Among the Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, These are based upon
the Quran and Hadis (traditions of the Prophet’s saying and doings). Of these the Hanafi
school of the eighth century was adopted by the eastern Turks, who later came to India.
The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or
Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and has
nothing to do with man’s evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are responsible
for their own actions. The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by
Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD), the Ashari school evolved its own rationalist argument
in defence of the orthodox doctrine (kalam). This school believes that God knows, sees
and speaks. The Quran is eternal and uncreated. The greatest exponent of this school was
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD), who is credited with having reconciled orthodoxy
with mysticism. He was a great theologian who in 1095 began to lead a life of a Sufi. He is
deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all non-orthodox
Sunni schools. He said that positive knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by revelation.
Sufis owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas did.
The influence of the ideas of Ghazali was greater because of the new educational system
set up by the state, It provided for setting up of seminaries of higher learning (called
madrasas) where scholars were familiarised with Ashari ideas. They were taught how to
run the government in accordance with orthodox Sunni ideas. These scholars were known
as ulema. Ulema played an important role in the politics of medieval India.
The Sufis
Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who
were shocked at the degeneration in political and religious life. They opposed the vulgar
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display of wealth in public life and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers.
Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. The Sufi
philosophy also differed from the ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and
liberal ideas. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The
Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints,
the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity. In course of
time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its
own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah
(hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in
Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities. It must be noted that the Sufi saints were not
setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework
of Islam. They owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulema did.
Sufism in India
The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the
early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly
known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). In the beginning, the
main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. It may be mentioned that
Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and
moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in
khanqahs had already been fixed. The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own
free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made
them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis.
However, in this lesson we shall outline only some of the important ones. These silsilahs
were divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those orders that
followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst
these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. The beshara
silsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group.
The Chishti Silsilah
The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). In India,
the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142) who came
to India around 1192. He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that
serving mankind was the best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the
downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in 1236. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading
pilgrim centre because the emperors regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. The extent of his
popularity can be seen by the fact that even today, millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his
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dargah for fufilment of their wishes. Among his disciples were Sheikh Hamiduddin of
Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The former lived the life of a poor peasant,
cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of villages. The khanqah of
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. Sultan Iltutmish
dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan)
popularised the Chishti silsilah in modern Haryana and Punjab. He opened his door of
love and generosity to all. Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus
and Muslims. His verses, written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible
for making Delhi an important centre of the Chishti silsilah. He came to Delhi in 1259 and
during his sixty years in Delhi, he saw the reign of seven sultans. He preferred to shun the
company of rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant
distribution of food and clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the noted writer
Amir Khusrau.
Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi). Following his death in 13 56 and the lack
of a spiritual successor, the disciples of the Chishti silsilah moved out towards eastern and
southern India.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
This silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India
by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqah in Multan,
which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin
Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from
him the title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam). It must be noted that unlike the Chishti
saints, the Suhrawardis maintained close contacts with the state. They accepted gifts,
jagirs and even government posts in the ecclersiastical department.
The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. Besides these two
silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah,
Naqshbandi Silsilah.
9.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT
The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints
who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a
new liberal outlook within Islam. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid
the foundation for more liberal movements of the fifteenth century. You will read that Sant
Kabir and Guru Nanak had preached a non-sectarian religion based on universal love.
The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) which was promoted
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by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240). He opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religïons
were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in India. There was also much exchange of
ideas between the Sufis and Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-yoga treatise Amrita Kunda
was translated into Arabic and Persian.
A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden
sections of society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day
problems of the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of
religion or caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.
According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind.
They treated Hindus and Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said “Though the Hindu is not like
me in religion, he believes in the same things that I do”.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. It fact, The Islamic emphasis
upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. The doctrines of the
Sufis were attacked by the orthodoxy. The Sufis also denounced the ulema. They believed
that the ulema had succumbed to world by temptations and were moving away from the
original democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between the orthodox
and liberal elements continued throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The Sufi saints tried to bring about social reforms too.
Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional
literature. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba
Farid recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. Shaikh Hamiduddin, before
him, wrote in Hindawi. His verses are the best examples of early Hindawi translation of
Persian mystical poetry. Syed Gesu Daraz was the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found
Hindi more expressive than Persian to explain mysticism. A number of Sufi works were
also written in Bengali.
The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau (l 252-1325) the follower of
Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrau took pride in being an Indian and looked at the history and
culture of Hindustan as a part of his own tradition. He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and
employed the Persian metre in Hindi. He created a new style called sabaq-i-hindi. By the
fifteenth century Hindi had begun to assume a definite shape and Bhakti saints such as
Kabir used it extensively.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1
1.Who were called Ulemas?
_______________________________________________________________
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2.What do you mean by Kalam?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who was called Data Ganj Baksh?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How many Silsilahs Ain-i-Akbari speaks about?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Where is the Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti Khanqah located?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What is the other name of Islamic law?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Who is called Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi)?
_______________________________________________________________
9.3 THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and
twelfth centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of
Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as a cold
formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and
worshipper. They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to
reach out to many people.
In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slow
process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form.
Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the old Puranic
form. Centered around Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits
to explain deep philosophy in simple terms. This work became a turning point in the history
of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement.
A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages.
The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit
works to make them understandable to a wider audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing
in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese,
Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and
Rajasthani. In addition, devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad,
Oriya, Malayalam, Maithili and Gujarati.
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The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction
of caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds.
Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative
brahman family. His disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s
son. Namdev was a tailor. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and
attacked institutionalised religion. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious
ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women
were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that
are popular even today.
Amongst the non-sectarian Bhakti saints, the most outstanding contribution was made by
Kabir and Guru Nanak. Their ideas were drawn from both Hindu and Islamic traditions
and were aimed at bridging the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims. Let us read in
some detail about them.
Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of a brahman widow, who abandoned
him. He was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver. Kabir believed that the way to
God was through personally experienced bhakti or devotion. He believed that the Creator
is One. His God was called by many names - Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda,
etc. No wonder then that the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta
and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in the Adi Granth. The external aspects of religion
were meaningless for Kabir. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi)
composed by him. One of his dohas conveyed that if by worshipping a stone (idol) one
could attain God, then he was willing to worship a mountain. It was better to worship a
stone flour-grinder because that could at least fill stomachs.
Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain
God. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning. For him,
a man could not achieve success without hard work. He advocated performance of action
rather than renunciation of duty. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and
Muslims to become his disciples.
Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the narrow thinking
of society. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of it has
passed into our everyday language.
Another great exponent of the Nankana school was Guru Nanak (1469-1539). He was
born at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib). From an early age, he showed leanings towards a
spiritual life. He was helpful to the poor and needy. His disciples called themselves Sikhs
(derived from Sanskrit sisya, disciple or Pali sikkha, instruction).
Guru Nanak’s personality combined in itself simplicity and peacefulness. Guru Nanak’s
objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. He
showed a new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social order. Like Kabir, Guru
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Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a religious teacher. He called for an
improvement in the status of women. He said that women who give birth to kings should
not be spoken ill of. His vani (words) alongwith those of other Sikh Gurus have been
brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
The Vaishnavite Movement
You have read that saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion
toward a nirankar form of God. During this period, another movement based upon devotion
towards a sakar form of God had also developed. This movement, called the Vaishnavite
movement, centered around the worship of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as
incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas
and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was expressed through the medium of poetry, song,
dance and kirtans.
Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a blind
poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits of
Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness.
The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73). Widowed
at an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her poems have a
quality of their own and are popular even today.
The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484-
1533). Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as the
highest form of God. The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn
session by devotees) which took place in homes, temples and even street processions.
Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too was willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of
caste, into the fold. The saints thus promoted a sense of equality amongst the people.
The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). He
considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The most
famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l 532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas.
The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of Hinduism.
They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Their philosophy was
broadly humanist.
9.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE BHAKTI AND SUFI
MOVEMENTS
You will recall that the Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed
religious bigotry and social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking. At a
time when society had become stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and strength.
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They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious
values. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian
lines. Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden. Although Kabir and
Nanak had no intention of founding new religions but following their deaths, their supporters
grouped together as Kabir panthis and Sikhs respectively.
The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them,
which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries.
Akbar’s liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which he was born and brought
up. The preaching of Guru Nanak were passed down from generation to generation. This
resulted in the growth of a separate religious group, with its separate language and script
Gurmukhi and religious book, Guru Granth Sahib. Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs
grew into a formidable political force in the politics of North India.
The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian society. The
Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was remarkably similar to that in the
Hindu Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian
verses to explain concepts. Thus we find Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisi
composing works in Hindi. The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna,
Ganga etc. became so common in such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid
wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndi to explain their Islamic equivalents. In later years this
interaction continued as Akbar and Jahangir followed a liberal religious policy.
The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical
renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at
kirtans. Even today Mira’s bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at prayer meetings.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.2
1.Which work became the turning point in the history of Vaishnavite movement?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Adi Granth is a holy work of which religion?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How did Kabir and Guru Nanak become popular among the masses?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who said this, ‘Women who give birth to kings should not be spoken ill of?
_______________________________________________________________
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5.Who wrote Sur Sagar?
_______________________________________________________________
Philosophy in Medieval India
The major religious movements were brought about by the mystics. They contributed to
the religious ideas and beliefs. Bhakti saints like Vallabhacharya, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka
brought about new philosophical thinking which had its origin in Shankaracharya’s advaita
(non-dualism) philosophy.
Vishistadvaita of Ramanujacharya
Vïshistadvaita means modified monism. The ultimate reality according to this philosophy
is Brahman (God) and matter and soul are his qualities.
Sivadvaita of Srikanthacharya
According to this philosophy the ultimate Brahman is Shiva, endowed with Shakti. Shiva
exists in this world as well as beyond it.
Dvaita of Madhavacharya
The literal meaning of dvaita is dualism which stands in opposition to non-dualism and
monism of Shankaracharya. He believed that the world is not an illusion (maya) but a
reality full of differences.
Dvaitadvaita of Nimbaraka
Dvaitadvaita means dualistic monism. According to this philosophy God transformed
himself into world and soul. This world and soul are different from God (Brahman). They
could survive with the support of God only. They are separate but dependent.
Suddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita. For him.
Brahman (God) was Sri Krishna who manifested himself as souls and matter. God and
soul are not distinct, but one. The stress was on pure non-dualism. His philosophy came to
be known as Pushtimarga (the path of grace) and the school was called Rudrasampradaya.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The Bhakti and Sufi movements were liberal movements within Hinduism and Islam
emphasising a new and more personalised relationship between the human being and
God.
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The message of the Sufi movement was universal love and brotherhood of man.
Because of their belief in the concept of unity of being, Sufis were able to establish an
ideological relationship with Hindu thought.
The Bhakti movement grew amongst Nayanars and Alvars of the south and stressed a
new method of worship of God based upon devotional love.
The Bhakti saints were divided into the Nirgun and Sagun believers.
Unlike the Nirgun believers the Sagun believers saw God as having a definite form
such as Rama or Krishna.
The Bhakti and Sufi saints made valuable contributions to medieval Indian society in
terms of laying a liberal foundation and promoting a tremendous growth of regional
literature and local languages.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1.How did Sufi movement progress in Islam?
2.How will you differentiate the Chisti Silsilah with the Subrawardi Silsilah?
3.The Bhakti Saints and the Sufi Saints were the two faces of a coin. Elaborate.
4.What were the similarities between Guru Nanak and Kabir?
5.Write a short paragraph on the Vaishnovite movement of India?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
9.1
1 Scholars with orthodox sunni ideas.
2 Orthodox doctrine of Islam religion.
3 Al-Hujwari
4 Fourteen
5 Sharia
6 Ajmer
7 Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud.
9.2
1.Bhagavata Purana
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2.Sikh religion
3.These ideas were drawn from the Hindu and Muslim traditions. They also used simple
languages.
4.Guru Nanak
5.Surdas
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10
RELIGIOUS REFROM
MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA
We are a very lucky people today. We are free from foreign domination and also
free from many other rigidities which our ancestors had to face. The Indian
society in the first half of the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent and rigid.
It followed certain practices which are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or values
but were still being followed in the name of religion. A change was therefore needed in
society. When the British came to India they introduced the English language as well as
certain modern ideas. These ideas were those of liberty, social and economic equality,
fraternity, democracy and justice which had a tremendous impact on Indian society.
Fortunately for our country there were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati and many others who were willing
to fight and bring in reforms in society so that it could face the challenges of the West.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
identify some common characteristics of religious and social reform movement;
explain the role played by Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj in bringing
about religious reforms;
recognise the Prarthana Samaj as an institution that worked for religious as
well as social reform;
explain the ideology of the Arya Samaj and its contributors to social and religious
reforms;
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examine the contribution of the Ramakrishna Mission to India’s awakening in
the nineteenth century;
appreciate the efforts of the Theosophical Society in promoting ancient Indian
religions;
discuss the contribution of the Aligarh Movement towards cultural and
educational reforms amongst the Muslims; and
examine the reforms carried out by the Sikhs and the Parsees to make their
society enlightened.
10.1 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND
SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS
From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of
ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growing knowledge
of India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization. It
also helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reform for their struggle
against all type of inhuman practices, superstitions etc.
Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of the movements
of social reform were of a religious character.
These social and religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian
people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class.
They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage,
social inequalities and illiteracy.
Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the British officials and
some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations framed by the
British Government.
10.2 BRAHMO SAMAJ AND RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY
Men and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. But do you know that they were
given to us by the untiring efforts made by certain reformers. Among the great reformers of
this period, Raja Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He presented a fine combination
of East and the West. A man of great literary talent and well versed in Indian culture, he
also made special effort to study Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them
with understanding. He felt great revulsion for many practices prevailing in India that enjoyed
religious approval.
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His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship, sacrificial
rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging these
practices. He opined that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism
or worship of one God. His greatest achievement in the field of relisious reform was an
setting up in 1828 of the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization
of religious reforms. It forbade idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites and rituals.
The Samaj also forbade its members from attacking any religion. It beliefed in the basic
unity of all the religions. Raja Rammohan Roy believed that man should adopt truth and
goodness and should give up things based on falsehood and superstition.
Raja Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also. His
greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. Raja Rammohan Roy realized that
the practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore he
started working as a stout champion of women’s rights. He worked very hard for years to
stop this practice of ‘Sati’. In the early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the
question of Sati. On the one hand he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred
books that the Hindu religion at its best was opposed to the practice and on the other, he
appealed to reason and humanity and compassion of the people. He visited the burining
ghats of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows to give up their plan of selfimmolation.
His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the orthodox Hindus who
bitterly attacked him.
Raja Rammohan Roy was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in
Indian society. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the caste
system. Another important area that concerned him was Hindu theology. Study of the
Vedas and Upanishads gave him ground to show that monotheism was the original Hindu
belief and hence he denounced polytheism and idolatry. In fact the philosopher did not
insist on the creation of a new religion but merely endeavoured to ‘purify’ the Vedic religion
from the crude and most ignorant superstitions. He proclaimed that there is only one God
for all religions and for all humanity. He wrote in Bengali and English. He was an ardent
promoter of English education. He was also well versed in the Persian language and some
of his most liberal and rational ideas were expressed in his early writings in that language.
He advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of man having more than one wife)
and child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property.
He condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas that women
were inferior to men in intellect or in a moral sense. He advocated the rights of widows to
remarry.
To bring his ideas into practice, Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828
which later came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. It was open to all persons regardless of
their colour, convictions, caste, nationality, and religion. It emphasised human dignity,
opposed idol worship and condemned social evils like sati pratha. It was not meant lo be
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a separate religious sect but only a place where all those who believed in one true God
could meet and pray. No images were allowed and no sacrifices and offerings permitted.
Debendra Nath Tagore (l817-1905), the son of Dwarkanath Tagore, founder member of
Brahmo Samaj, succeeded Raja Rammohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He
put new life in the Samaj and propagated Raja Rammohan Roy’s ideas. Keshub Chandra
Sen (l838-1884) took over the leadership of the Samaj from Tagore. The Brahmo Samaj
stood for the principles of individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and collaboration
and the democratisation of all social institutions and relations. It thus became the first
organised vehicle for the expression of national awakening and inaugurated a new era for
the people of India. However, the Brahmo Samaj was weakened by internal dissensions
and its influence remained confined to urban educated groups. But it left its impact on the
intellectual, social and political life of Bengal.
10.3 PRARTHANA SAMAJ AND RANADE
The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825-
1898) in 1876 with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The two great
members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade.
They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dining, intercaste
marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed
classes.
Mahavdev Govind Ranade (1842-1901) devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj. He
was the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education
Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well. To Ranade, religious reform
was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if religious ideas were rigid there
would be no success in social, economic and political spheres. MG RAnade was the
leader of social reformation and cultural renaissance in Western India.
Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involved in social service was “Strength
of numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction, singleness
of devotion, readiness for self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in the cause.”
Although Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, it did
not insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and a definite break from the caste system.
It did not regard the Vedas as the last word, nor did it believe in the doctrine of transmigration
of the human soul and incarnation of God. Its central idea was one positive belief in the
unity of God.
10.4 DEROZIO AND YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT
Henry Lui Vivian Derozio, joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher. He had
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come from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern
education in Bengal as his life’s mission.
Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association for
debate and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired his
followers and students to question all authority. Derozio and his famous followers, known
as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fiery patriots. They cherished the ideals of the
French Revolution (1789 A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain. Derozio died of cholera
at the young age of 22.
The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden
death. Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching
radical views through teaching and journalism.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Another outstanding reformer in Bengal was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891
A.D.). A scholar of great depths, he dedicated himself to the cause of the emancipation of
women. It was due to his sincere efforts that obstacles to the marriage of widows were
removed through a law in 1856. He played a leading role in promoting education of girls
and started and helped the setting up a number of schools for girls. Vidyasagar did not
concern himself much with religious questions. However, he was against all those who
opposed reforms in the name of religion.
10.5 SPREAD OF THE REFORM MOVEMENTS IN
WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIA
After Bengal, the most important region where the movement for reforms spread was
western India. Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He attacked
Brahmanical orthodoxy and tried to reform popular Hinduism.
In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona, Satara and other towns of
Maharashtra. Its followers had faith in one God and they opposed caste system. At its
meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured education of
women and supported widow remarriage. Mahadev Ranade believed that without social
reforms it was not possible to achieve any progress in the political and economic fields. He
was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Two other great reformers in Western India were Gopal Hari Deshmukh Lokahitwari and
Jotirao Govindrao Phule popularly known as Jotiba. They worked for the upliftment of
women, took up the cause of women and downtrodden masses. Jyotiba with his wife
started a girls school in Poona, in 1857. He also opened a school for the children of the
depressed classes. Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in
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Maharashtra. He challenged the dominance of Brahmins and worked for organizing and
activating the masses. He championed the cause of villagers and actively worked for rural
development in Maharashtra. Jotiba was given the tile of ‘Mahatma’ for his work for the
cause of the oppressed. In 1873, he founded the Satya-Shodhak to give strength to his
movement and make it popular.
In the southern parts of the country. Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919) pioneered
the movement in support of widow remarriage and girls education in Andhra. Veda Samaj
founded in Madras in 1864 advocated discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of
widow remarriage and women’s education. It condemned the superstitions and rituals of
orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God. Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
was the most popular leader of the Veda Samaj. He translated books of the Veda Samaj
in Tamil and Telugu.
An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called
backward and oppressed sections of Indian society was started by Shree Narayana Guru
(1854-1928) in Kerala. In 1903 he founded the Shree narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam
(SNDP) to carry on the work of social reform. Shree Narayana Guru considered differences
based on caste and religion as meaningless and advocated what he called ‘One Caste, one
Religion and on God’ for all.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1
1.State the circumstances that lead to the foundation of Brahmo Samaj?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What were the principles of Brahmo Samaj?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How did Prathana Samaj help reducing social disparities?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who was M.G.Ranade?
_______________________________________________________________
10.6 SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883) AND
ARYA SAMAJ
Attend a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. You will find many women attending it. They
are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This was the basic contribution of
Mool Shanker an important representative of the religions reform movement in India from
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Gujarat. He later came to be known as Dayanand Saraswati (l824-1883). He founded
the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started
by Dayanand Saraswari. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to
man by God and essentials of modern science could also be traced in them. He was
opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood, particularly to the prevalent caste practices and
popular Hinduism as preached by the Brahmins. He favoured the study of western science.
With all this doctrine, he went about all over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya
Samaj in Bombay.
Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings and
preachings made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. Arya Samajis
opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapid progress
in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
A Network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern
India to promote the spread of education. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School of Lahore,
which soon developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions.
Instruction was imparted through Hindi and English on modern lines. Lala Hansraj played
a leading role in this field. In 1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul near Hardwar
to propagate the more traditional ideas of education. This was set up on the pattern of
ancient Ashrams.
Arya Samaj tried to inculcate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance among the people
of India. This promoted nationalism. At the same time one of its main objectives was to
prevent the conversion of Hindus to other religions. It also prescribed a purificatory
ceremony calld suddhi for those Hindus who had been converted to other religions like
Islam and Christianity.
10.7 THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI
VIVEKANANDA
Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya (l836-86) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be
known as Ramakrishna Paramahansa: His education did not proceed beyond the elementary
stage and he had no formal education in philosophy and Shastras. He dedicated his life to
God. He believed that there were many roads to God and the service of man was the
service of God, because man was the embodiment of God. Hence sectarianism had no
place in his teachings. He realised the divinity in humanity and looked upon the service of
mankind as a means to salvation.
Narendra Nath Datta (l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most
devoted pupil of Ramakrishna Paramahansa who carried the message of his Guru
Ramakrishna all over the world, specially in America and Europe.
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Vivekananda was proud of India’s spiritual heritage, but he believed that no individual or
nation can live by holding himself or itself apart from the community of others. He condemned
the caste system, rigid rituals, century old superstitions and advocated liberty, free thinking
and equality.
Vivekananda was indeed, a patriot from the core of his heart. He had tremendous faith in
the evolution of Indian culture and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and great in
her culture so as to serve her in all possible ways for her onward march.
Swami Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s teaching on the essential oneness of all
religions. He promoted the Vedanta philosophy which he considered the most rational
system.
The principal feature of Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on the upliftment
of the masses. For him, service to the poor and downtrodden was the highest religion. To
organise such service, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. This Mission to date
has played an important role in providing social service in times of national distress like
famine, floods, and epidemic. Many schools, hospitals, orphanages are run by it.
In 1893 he participated in the All World Religious Conference (Parliament of Religions) at
Chicago in the United States of America. He argued that Vedanta was the religion of all
and not of the Hindus alone. His address there made a deep impression on the people of
other countries and thus helped to raise the prestige of Indian culture in the eyes of the
world. Though his mission was mainly of religious nature, he was keenly interested in the
improvement of all aspects of national life. He expressed his concern for the miserable and
poor conditions of the people and said that neglect of the masses is a sin. He frankly
stated, “It is we who are responsible for all our misery and all our degradation.” He urged
his countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose bands of workers devoted
to this cause were trained through the Ramakrishan Mission. Thus Vivekananda emphasized
social good or social services.
INTEXT QUEST1ONS 10.2
1.Who founded Arya Samaj?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Where was first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College established?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How according to Gadadhar Chattopadhaya can you achieve salvation?
_______________________________________________________________
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4.What was the original name of Swami Vivekanand?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What according to Swami Viveknand was the highest religion?
_______________________________________________________________
10.8 THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY AND ANNIE BESANT
Theosophical society has played an important role in the history of the religion, society and
culture of modern India. It was founded in the USA in 1875 by a Russian spiritualist
Madame H.P. Blavatsky and an American Col. H.S. Olcott. Its objective was to promote
studies in ancient religions, philosophies and science, develop the divine powers latent in
man and form a universal brotherhood of man.
The Society was introduced to India in 1879 and its headquarters were set up at Adyar
near Madras in 1886. Its influence spread under Annie Beasant in 1893 who played an
important role in India’s struggle for freedom. She and her associates advocated the revival
and strengthening of the ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
They recognized the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul. They also preached the
universal brotherhood of man. They helped to impart to the educated Indians a sense of
pride in their own country. Annie Beasant’s movement was a movement led and supported
by westerners who glorified Indian religious and philosophical traditions. This helped Indians
to recover their self-confidence.
In fact the activities of Annie Besant in the field of education were more significant. She
founded the Central Hindu College at Banaras which she later handed over to Madan
Mohan Malaviya. He developed that college into the Banaras Hindu University. Although
the Theosophical Movement did not enjoy mass popularity, its work under the leadership
of Annie Besant for awakening of the Indians was remarkable. She contributed a great
deal to the development of national spirit in Indians. The headquarters of the Theosophical
Society at Adyar became a centre of knowledge with a library of rare Sanskrit books.
The society fought against untouchability and advocated upliftment of women. Annie Besant
dedicated her whole life to the cause of Indian society. She described her mission in these
words: “The Indian work is first of all the revival, the strengthening and uplifting of the
ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-respect, and pride in the past; belief in
the future, and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the
rebuilding of a nation”.
One of Mrs. Besant’s many achievements in India was the establishment of the Central
Hindu School. Annie Besant made India her permanent home and took a prominent part in
Indian politics. “The needs of India are, among others, the development of a national spirit
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and an education founded on Indian ideas and enriched, not dominated by the thoughts
and culture of the West”. She always supported Home Rule for Indians and established a
Home Rule League in 1916 to spread the message of self rule.
Branches of the Theosophical Society were opened all over India and its Journal
Theosophist had a wide circulation. The Society gave a helping hand in social and religious
reform, especially in south India. Most of the work done by it was influenced by Annie
Besant.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.3
1.Where was The Theosophical Society founded?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who founded the Theosophical Society?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where was the head quarters of the Theosophical Society in India?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who established Home Rule League in 1916?
_______________________________________________________________
10.9 ALIGARH MOVEMENT AND SAYYID AHMAD KHAN
You have just read about reform within the Hindu religion, its practices and social institutions.
A similar reform movement was also taking place within Islam. The Muslim upper classes
had tended to avoid contact with Western education and culture and it was only after the
revolt of 1857 that modern ideas of religious reform began to appear. The beginning was
made by the Muhammedan Literary Society founded in Calcutta in 1863 founded by
Nawab Abdul Latif 1828-1893. It promoted discussion of religious, social and political
questions in the light of modern ideas and encouraged upper and middle class Muslims to
adopt Western education. It also played an important role for Muslim Unity. The Muslim
masses were also influenced by movements carried on by the Chishti sufis who preached
not only submission to God but also promoted the veneration of saints. Another movement
is associated with Shah Waliullah in Delhi, who opposed the unorthodox religious practices
and revived the Shia sect and strict monotheism. The philosophical and learned tradition of
the Firangi Mahal in Lucknow was incorporated into the new educational syllabus and
propagated throughout India during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Sharitulla of
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Bengal was the leader of the Faraizi movement Bengal which took up the cause of the
peasants and even spoke against the caste system among the Muslims.
The most notable of the Muslim reformers was Sayyid Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, in Uttar
Pradesh. He attracted the Muslim artisans of the declining weaving towns of Allahabad
and Patna finding a ready audience and giving the common people dignity and an identity
through a common faith at a time of social dislocation. He realised that unless the Muslims
adapted themselves to the changed circumstances of British rule, they would be deprived
of all new opportunities for status and prosperity. He was highly impressed by modern
scientific thought and worked all his life to reconcile it with Islam. He interpreted the Quran
in the light of rationalism and science. He urged the people to develop a critical approach
and freedom of thought. He also warned against fanaticism, narrow-mindedness and
exclusiveness. He asked the people to be broadminded and tolerant. In 1883 he said:
“Now both of us (Hindus and Muslims) live on the air of India, drink the holy waters of the
Ganga and Jamuna. We both feed upon the products of the Indian soil… we are a nation
and the progress and welfare of the country, and both of us, depend on our unity, mutual
sympathy, and love, while our mutual disagreement, obstinacy and opposition and ill-
feeling are sure to destroy us”.
Syed Ahmed Khan rightly felt that isolation would harm the Muslim community and to
prevent that he did his best to create a link with the progressive cultural forces of the
outside world. He worked hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers towards the
Muslims whom they considered as their real enemies.
He felt that the religious and social life of the Muslims could be improved only with the help
of modem Western scientific knowledge and culture. Therefore, promotion of modern
education was the first task. As an official, he founded schools at many places. He got
many Western books translated into Urdu. He started the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental
College in 1875 at Aligarh. It was meant to be a centre for spreading Western sciences
and culture. Later, this college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University.
The liberal, social and cultural movement started by Sayyid Ahmad Khan among the Muslims
is known as the Aligarh Movement as it originated in Aligarh. The Anglo-Oriental College
was the centre of this movement. It aimed at promoting modern education among Muslims
without weakening the ties with Islam. It became the central educational institution for
Indian Muslims.
The Aligarh Movement was largely responsible for the Muslim revival that followed. It
provided a focal point for the scattered Muslim population in different parts of the country.
It gave them a common fund of ideas and a common language - Urdu. A Muslim press was
developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.
Sayyid Ahmad’s efforts extended to the social sphere as well. He worked for social reforms.
He wanted women to be educated and advocated the removal of the purdah. He was also
against polygamy.
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There were several other socio-religious movements which in one way or the other helped
the national awakening of the Muslims. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had founded the Ahmediya
Movement in 1899. Under this movement, a number of schools and colleges were opened
all over the country, imparting modern education. In the field of religion the followers of
this movement emphasized the universal and humanitarian character of Islam. They favoured
the unity among Hindus and Muslims.
One of the greatest poets of modern India, Muhammad Iqbal, (1876-1938) also profoundly
influenced through his poetry, the philosophical and religious outlook of the younger
generation of Muslims as well as of Hindus. He urged the adoption of a dynamic outlook
that would help change the world. He was basically a humanist.
10.10 REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS
Religious reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In
1851, the Rehnumai Maz’dayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded
by Nauroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others. They started a journal
Rast Goftar, for the purpose of social-religious reforms among the Parsis. They also played
an important role in the spread of education, specially among girls. They campaigned
against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated the modernization of
Parsi social customs regarding the education of girls marriage and the social position of
women in general. In course of time, the Parsis became socially the most westernized
section of Indian society.
10.11 RELIGIOUS REFORM AMONG SIKHS
Religious reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the
Khalsa College started at Amritsar. Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and
with British support, the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892. This college
and schools set up as a result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh learning and
Punjabi literature as a whole.
After 1920 the Sikh momentum gained momentum when the Akali Movement rose in
Punjab. The chief object of the Akalis was to improve the management of the Gurudwaras
or Sikh Shrines that were under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as
their private property. In 1925, a law was passed which gave the right of managing
Gurudwaras to the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.
10.12 IMPACT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT
The British wanted to appease the orthodox upper section of society. As a result only two
important laws were passed. Some legal measures were introduced to raise the status of
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women. For example Sati was declared illegal (1829). Infanticide was declared illegal.
Widow remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. Marriageable age of girls was
raised to ten by a law passed in 1860.
A law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. The other
law passed in 1891, aimed at discouraging child marriage. For preventing child marriage,
the Sharda Act was passed in 1929. According to it a girl below 14 and a boy below 18
could not be married. In the 20th century and especially after 1919 the Indian national
movement became the main propagator of social reform. Increasingly, the reformers took
recourse to propaganda in the Indian language to reach the masses. They also used novels,
dramas, short stories, poetry, the Press and in the thirties (1930’s), the cinema too spread
their views.
Numerous individuals, reform societies, and religious organizations worked hard to spread
education among women, to prevent marriage of young children, to bring women out of
the purdah, to enforce monogamy, and to enable middle class women to take up professions
or public employment. Due to all these efforts Indian women played an active and important
role in the struggle for independence of the country. As a result many superstitions
disappeared and many others were on their way out. Now, it was no longer a sin to travel
to foreign countries.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.4
1.Who started Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Where is the Aligarh Muslim University located?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What were the views of Sayyid Ahmed Khan for Muslim women?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Where was the Muhammedan Literary Society established?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Give the names of any three famous socio-religious reformers of the Parsis.
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The impact of British rule in India led to a number of social and religious reforms.
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Raja Rammohan Roy can be regarded as the central figure of India’s awakening for
championing the spread of modern education, science and technology and for his
relentless fight against many social evils.
R.G Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade carried out their work of religious reforms in
Maharashtra through the Prarthana Samaj by propagating inter-caste marriages,
freedom from priestly domination and improvement of the lot of women.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj and pleaded for the right of
individuals to interpret Vedas and free themselves from the tyranny of priests. Besides
all this, the organisation fought against untouchability and caste rigidity as well as worked
for promoting modern education.
Swami Vivekananda, a great humanist, through his Ramakrishna Mission condemned
religious narrow mindedness, advocated free thinking and emphasised on service for
the poor.
The Theosophical Society, under the guidance of Annie Besant, promoted studies of
ancient Indian religions, philosophies and doctrines.
Religious reforms among the Muslims were carried out by Sayyid Ahmad Khan who
encouraged Muslims to adopt modern education; denounced polygamy, purdah system
and spoke against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationlism.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.What was Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s role in the social reforms in India?
2.How would you say that Prathana Samaj was doing religious as well as social reforms?
3.How will you justify the Arya Samaj’s faith in Vedas?
4.Explain how Rama Krishna Mission helped in awakening India in the nineteenth century?
5.Discuss the efforts of Sayyid Ahmed Khan in removing the evils of Muslim community?
6.The contributions of The Theosophical Society in the development of Indian society
cannot be forgotten. Elaborate.
7.Write a short note on the reforms undertaken by the Sikh reformers.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
10.1
1.Practices prevalent in the society such as Sati Pratha, Caste system.
2. Oppose idol worship. No to sacrifices, no to offerings, Sati Pratha condemnation,
Human dignity.
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3.By doing inter-caste marriage, inter-caste dining, widow remarriage, improvement of
the lot of women and depressed classes.
4.A strong follower of Prathana Samaj ideology.
10.2
1.Arya Samaj was founded by Dayanand Saraswati.
2.At Lahore in 1886.
3.The service of mankind is a means to salvation
4.Narendra Nath Datta.
5.Service to the poor and downtrodden.
10.3
1.U.S.A.
2.H.P. Balavatsky –a Russian and Col H.S. Olocott – an American.
3.Adyar near Chennai
4.Mrs. Annie Besant.
10.4
1.Sayyid Ahmed Khan
2.Aligarh
3.Removal of Purdha system and Education for women.
4.At Calcutta in 1863.
5.Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee, Nauroji Furdongi.
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and Architecture
11
INDIAN PAINTING
When you go to the market or to a museum you will find many paintings, wall
hangings or work done on terracotta. Do you know that these paintings have
their origin in ouir ancient past. They depict the life and customs followed by
the people of those times. They also show how the kings and queens dressed or how the
courtiers sat in the royal assembly. Literacy records which had a direct bearing on the art
of painting show that from very early times painting both secular and religious were
considered an important form of artistic expression and was practised. This need for
expression is a very basic requirement for human survival and it has taken various forms
since prehistoric times. Painting is one such form with which you may have been acquainted
in some way or the other. Indian painting is the result of the synthesis of various traditions
and its development is an ongoing process. However while adapting to new styles, Indian
painting has maintained its distinct character. “Modern Indian painting in thus a reflection
of the intermingling of a rich traditional inheritance with modern trends and ideas”.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
trace the origin of painting from the prehistoric times;
describe the development of painting during the medieval period;
recognise the contribution of Mughal rulers to painting in India;
trace the rise of distinct schools of painting like the Rajasthani and the Pahari
schools;
assess the development of painting in local centres like Kangra, Kulu, and Basoli;
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appr and Architecture eciate the contribution of Raja Ravi Varma to Indian painting;
assess the role played by Rabindranath Tagore and Abanindranath Tagore in the
emergence of the Bengal School of Art;
appreciate the role specialty of the progressive artists group of Francis Newton
Souza;
recognise the contribution of folk art forms like the Mithila painting, Kalamkari
painting, Warli painting and Kalighat painting in adding numerous new
dimensions in the field of painting.
11.1 ANCIENT PERIOD: ORIGIN
Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the
remains that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources. The history of art
and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.)
where we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh
(Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings
and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization.
Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques for
example, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the representation of
folklore, the second one was line drawing and painting on textile while the third one was
painting on the floor.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures
in many royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions numerous
paintings or Patas. The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has
mentioned painting amongst 64 kinds of arts and says that it was based on scientific
principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting
called Chitrasutra which describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion,
lustre and portryal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing
of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are the
ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and
stories from the Jataka.
Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. 9
depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. 10 Jataka stories are
depicted. But the best paintings were done in the 5th – 6th centuries AD during the Gupta
age. The murals chiefly depict religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Buddhist
Jataka stories but we also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of
Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads
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and Architecture over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, together with all the many beasts,
birds and flowers of India.
Materials used in the paintings
Different materials were used in different types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas (art
gallery) and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) have been made in literary sources.
However, the principal colours used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum kum or
sindura), yellow ochre (haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, lampblack (kajjala), chalk
white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. All these colours were locally available
except lapis lazuli which came from Pakistan. Mixed colours e.g. grey were used on rare
occasions. Use of colours were decided by the theme and local atmosphere.
Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the
North and at various Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Though the
theme of these paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be
more secular, courtly and sophisticated. Though only a small part remains of these paintings
but they depict a crowded world of Gods and goddesses semi divine being like kinnars
and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can
be seen in cave 3 at Badami (Karnataka), at temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of
Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and Jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninth
centuries). Many other South Indian temples such as Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur
are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and mythology. If Bagh, Ajanta
and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at its best, Sittana
Vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its penetration
in the south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected with
jaina themes while the other three are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite
having a very traditionally secular design and theme the paintings of these times started
showing the impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand
and linear and somewhat angular designs on the other.
11.2 ART IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural painting has been reported from the royal
palaces and royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and
plants. During the time of Iltutmish (1210-36) we have references of paintings. During the
time of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) we have mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated
manuscripts) and paintings on cloths. During the Sultanate period, we notice the Persian
and Arabic influences on Indian painting. We have references of the coming of Persian and
Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and the Arab world for the Muslim elites.
During this period, we have paintings from other regional states. The decorative paintings
of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed both Babur and Akbar.
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During 14th – 15th centuries and Architecture A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in
Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of the
patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bengal in Eastern India were other great centres of manuscripts illustrated with paintings.
In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the 9th – 10th
century A.D., a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. The miniature,
as the name suggests, were small works which were made on perishable materials. In this
category, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They
resemble the Ajanta style, but on a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the
merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries.
From the thirteenth century onwards, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with
them important features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
illustrated manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur,
Gujarat and the Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted
in the synthesis of the two styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the
early sultanate period, significant contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain
community of Western India. Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were presented to
temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankars. The
art of textual illustration got a new look under the Mughals. Akbar and his successors
brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this period book
illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of art.
Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought two Persian
painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in inscriptions.
Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan. Beautiful
illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an
integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the
independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of
nearly 1400 cloth paintings were produced representing the new style and were placed in
the imperial studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.
The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a great
painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue
and red and were able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das
and Manohar were the most gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had made an
outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan and specialised in paintings of birds and
animals. Though Shah Jahan was more interested in architectural splendours, his eldest
son Dara Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He preferred depicting natural
elements like plants and animals in his painting. However withdrawal of royal patronage to
painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country.
This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and the Punjab hills
giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani and Pahari Schools.
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and Architecture These works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They
painted themes drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa
(seasons) and Raga mala (melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at local centres
like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler, Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu.
The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired
illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. In the pre-Mughal era mural
paintings on the walls of temples gained prominence in the northern part of India.
11.3 ART IN THE MODERN PERIOD
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernised
local styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. Themes were generally
drawn from Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. These reflected
the improvised Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for Lady Impey and
the portrait paintings of Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the
examples of some excellent paintings of this period.
In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established in
major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma
of Travancore depicting mythological and social themes became highly popular at this
time.
Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish
Coomaraswamy played an important role in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art.
The Bengal School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore set
up the Kala Bhavan. Talented artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and
Ramkinkar Baij rendered training to aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspiration
from Indian folk art and also from Japanese painting while Binod Behari Mukerjee was
deeply interested in oriental traditions. Jamini Roy, another great painter of this period,
drew inspiration from Qrissa’s pata painting and Kalighat painting of Bengal. Amrita Shergil,
a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest. Considered a prodigy from a
Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on Indian themes in bright colours specially
Indian women and peasants. Though she died very young, she left behind a rich legacy of
Indian paintings.
Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban
middle class which began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. Increasing
awareness about British rule, ideals of nationalism and the desire for a national identity led
to creations which were distinct from earlier art traditions.
In 1943, during the period of the second world war Calcutta painters led by Paritosh Sen,
Niroda Majumdar and Pradosh Dasgupta formed a group who depicted the condition of
the people of India through new visual language, and novel techniques.
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Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive and Architecture Artists Group in
Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S .H. Raza, M.F.
Hussain, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away from Bengal
School of Art and represented the modern forceful art of independent India.
In the 1970s artists began to critically survey their environment. Daily encounters with
poverty and corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communal tension,
and other urban issues became the themes or subject matter of their works.
The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged
as an important art centre in post independence period and influenced a new generation of
modern artists.
Some of the artists who made their mark as modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish
Gujral, Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie Ela
Menon, Akbar Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala and A. Ramachandran.
Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. The
National Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof.
The second one is the Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises and patronizes artists in all
fields.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1
Answer the following questions:
1.Which is the famous excavated site in Madhya Pradesh?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What are the three types of painting found in Brahmanical and Buddhist literature in
ancient India?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where are the dhulitchitras paintings normally done?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What was the theme of the Ajanta cave painting?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Give the names of two sites where Buddhist painting of sixth & ninth centuries were
found?
_______________________________________________________________
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and Architecture 6.What are miniature painting?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Who withdew the royal patronage to painters in the medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
8.What were the themes in the paintings of the urban English educated artists?
_______________________________________________________________
9.Name the two government institutions set up to promote art, music in India.
_______________________________________________________________
10.Which state is famous for Patta painting?
_______________________________________________________________
11.Name the institution set up by Rabindra Nath Tagore at Shantiniketan?
_______________________________________________________________
12.Why was Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore famous?
_______________________________________________________________
11.4 DECORATIVE ART
The artistic expression of the Indian people is not limited to painting on canvas or paper
only. Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight. Rangoli
or decorative designs on floor are made for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylised
designs have been passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are called
rangoli in the North, alpana in Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka,
Kollam in Tamilnadu and mandana in Madhya Pradesh. Usually rice powder is used for
these paintings but coloured powder or flower petals are also used to make them more
colourful.
Adorning walls of houses and huts is also an old tradition. The following are some of the
examples of folk art of this kind.
11.5 MITHILA PAINTING
Mithila painting also known as Madhubani folk art is the traditional art of the Mithila region
of Bihar. They are produced by village women who make three dimensional images using
vegetable colour with few earthen colours and finished in black lines on cow dung treated
paper. These pictures tell tales especially about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or
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depict the images of Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology and Architecture .
Apart from these women also paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy
plant also is to be found in these paintings. They also show court scenes, wedding and
social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani pictures are very conceptual. First, the painter
thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to describe the figures
accurately. Visually they are images that speak in lines and colours and are drawn for some
rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal festivals or special
events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and birds motifs can also be found along with
geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases it is a special practice for mothers to
make these art items in advance for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also
convey advice on ways to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in
subjects and use of colours. One can identify the community to which the painting belongs
from the colours that are used in them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes
are colourful while those made by the lower caste people use red and black line work. But
the technique of painting is safely and zealously guarded by the women of the village to be
passed on by the mother to the daughter.
Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has
become a source of income for local women folk.
11.6 KALAMKARI PAINTING
The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched
as it came down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra
Pradesh. It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth.
Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalam Kari work. A small place Sri-Kalahasti is
the best known centre of Kalamkari art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in
Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth
panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijaynagar
rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindu religious
mythology. This art form is a continuous legacy from father to son. After deciding the
subject of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Every scene is surrounded by floral
decorative patterns. These paintings are made on cloth. They are very durable and flexible
in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich border
embellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda,
the Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. The
outlines and main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later
done using the pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists
use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to
the other end to serve as brush or pen.
The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours from plant roots, leaves, along with
salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc.
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and Architecture Orissa Patachitra
Similar to Kalighat Pats, one comes across another kind of Pats which are found in the
state of Orissa. The Orissa patachitras, mostly painted on cloth are more detailed and
more colourful and most of these depict stories of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Phad Paintings
Phad is a type of scroll painting. The paintings depicting exploits of local deities are often
carried from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, who narrate the
theme depicted on the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famous painting of Rajasthan,
mainly found in the Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic
figure, the daily life of a peasant, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. These
paintings are created using bright colours and subtle colours. The outlines of the paintings
are first drawn in black and later filled with colours. The main themes of the phad paintings
depict the deities and their legends and the stories of erstwhile Maharajas. Raw colours
are used for these paintings. The unique features of phad paintings are the bold lines and a
two dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition arranged in sections.
The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it was originated
in Shahpura, some 35 kms from Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The continuous royal patronage
gave a decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished for generations.
Gond Art
A very highly sophisticated and abstract form of Art works are also produced by the
Santhals in India. The Gond tribe of the Godavari belt who are as old as the Santhals
produce figurative works.
Batik Print
Not all the folk arts and crafts are entirely Indian in their origin. Some of the crafts and
techniques have been imported from the Orient like the Batik. But these have now been
Indianised and Indian Batik is now a matured art, immensely popular and expensive.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.2
Answer the following questions.
1.Match the follwoing decorative art with the state of origin.
A B
Rangoli Tamil Nadu
Alpana Madhya Pradesh
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Aipan North India and Architecture
Rangavalli Bengal
Kollam Uttaranchal
Mandana Karnataka
_______________________________________________________________
2.Through which paintings were advices given to the younger girls?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How is Kalam Kari work done?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What is special about Kalamkari painting?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Which is the most famous place for Kalam Kari art?
_______________________________________________________________
11.7 WARLI PAINTING
Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of
Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’
homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to create a
composite whole in a Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as
part of their routine at auspicious celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with
simple and local materials like white colour and rice paste and local vegetable glue on a
plain contrasting background, made in a geometric patterns like squares, triangles, and
circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of these composition. Flora and fauna and
people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The paintings are expanded by
adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the Warli way of life is
beautifully captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings do not
employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form.
11.8 KALIGHAT PAINTING
Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Kolkata. Kalighat is
a bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and
settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century.
These paintings on paper made with water colours comprise clear sweeping line drawings
using bright colours and a clear background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna,
Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and goddesses. In this process, artists developed a unique
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and Architecture new form of expression, and effectively portray a wide range of subjects commenting on
the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata paintings may be found in Orissa. This painting
form has its roots in the culture upheavds of 19th century colonial Bengal.
As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of
Hindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings.
The genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western style
theatrical performances, the rise of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of
British colonial and administrative system. The emergence of the unique lifestyle of the
nouveau riche of Kolkota in response to these diverse influence also inspired these paintings.
All these stimuli gave birth to a new imagery that occupied the centre stage of Bengali
literature, theatre and visual arts of the period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror
of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their preexisting models of the Hindu deities,
the artists created a whole repertoire of images, courtesans, actresses, heroines, pompous
babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair styles, smoking
pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works of art
that came from Bengal.
11.9 INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily
life have been crafted with delicate design which give expression to the creativity of the
Indian artisan. Every state of India can boast of some unique creation which is special to
the region, for example, Kashmir is famous for embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk
and walnut wood furniture. Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhnï) fabrics,
jewellery, using precious stone and jems, blue glazed pottery and minakari work. Andhra
Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampalh saris while Tamil Nadu is well known
for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is well known for silk, sandalwood
items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood furniture. Chanderi and kosa
silk of Madhya Pradesh, chikan work of Lucknow, Brocade and silk saris of Benaras,
cane furniture and goods of Assam, Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom items of
Bengal are just a few examples of unique traditional decorative arts and crafts which
constitute the heritage of modern India. These arts have been nurtured for thousands of
years and provided employment to a great number of artisans who carried forward the art
to the next generation. Thus you see how the Indian artisans with their magic touch can
transform a piece of metal, wood or ivory into objects of art.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.3
1.Where do you find Warli Painting?
_______________________________________________________________
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2 and Architecture .Which tribe is famous for Warli paintings?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What is special about Warli painting?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What are some unique creations of art and crafts form of Kashmir state?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The earliest specimens of creative painting in India can be traced to the prehistoric
times.
References to paintings of various types and their techniques are available in both
Brahminical and Buddhist literature.
Buddhist rock-cut caves of Ajanta in the western Deccan are famous for their wall
paintings.
The Mughals began a new era in painting by synthesising Indian painting with the
Persian tradition.
The Rajasthani and Pahari schools of painting have contributed significantly in the
enrichment of Indian painting.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, painting comprised of semiwesternised
local styles based on Indian themes.
Establishment of art schools on European model in major Indian cities like Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras and particularly the emergence of the Bengal school of art were
the other milestones in Indian painting during the modern period.
The progressive artists like Francis Newton Souza, S.H. Raza, and M.F. Hussain
broke away from the Bengal School of Art to represent the modern forceful art of
independent India.
Various folk art forms like Mithila paintings (Madhubani), Kalamkari painting, Warli
painting and Kalighat painting took Indian painting to new heights by adding new
dimensions to it.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.How will you describe the development of painting art during the medieval era?
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and Architecture 2.Define the Madhubani art form. How are the drawings in Madhubani paintings very
conceptual?
3.Differentiate the Kalamkari painting with Mithilla painting?
4.Various forms of culture of Bengal is depicted in Kalighat paintings. Elaborate?
5.The Indian artisans with their magic touch can transform a piece of metal, wood or
ivory into objects of art. Elaborate.
6.What was the contribution of the Mughals to painting as an art?
7.Write short notes on:
i)Kalamkari art
ii)Pahari art
iii) Kalighat art
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
11.1
1.Bhimbhetka
2.Lepyacitras, Lekhacitras and dhulitcitras.
3.It is done on the floor
4.They depict scenes from Jataka stories and Buddhist themes.
5.Bagh in the North
badami (Karnataka) south
6.On a small surface depicting themes drawn from epics, myths and legends, seasons
and Rogamala (melodies)
7.Aurangzeb
8.(a) Evil nature of British rule
(b) Ideals of nalienalism
(c) Desire for a national identity
9.(a) The National Gallery of Modern Art.
(b) Lalit Kala Akademi
10.Orissa state.
11.Kala Bhawan
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1 and Architecture 2.Oil painting depicting mythological and social themes became highly famous in modern
India.
11.2
1.Rangoli North India
Alpana Bengal
Aipan Uttranchal
Rangavalli Karnataka
Kollam Tamil Nadu
Mendana Madhya Pradesh
2.Mithila Paintings
3.It uses vegetables dyes
4.These are made on Hindu religions mythodology which scence after scene is painted.
It is surrounded by floral decorative patterns on top and bottom.
5.Sri Kalhasti
11.3
1.In Maharshtra state of India
2.Gond and Kol tribes
3. It uses a geometric pattern and the subject after subject are added in a spirating
manner.
4.Embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silks and walnut furniture.
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12
PERFORMING ARTS: MUSIC,
DANCE AND DRAMA
Music, dance, drama, folk theatre or puppetry our country India, had all of it in
abundance. Oh! somebody playing the Dhol (music instrument) and there is
music, we run to see what it is. Well, it is Lohri which is normally held on 13th
January every year in the Northern part of our country. People are singing and dancing
with a lot of enthusiasam. These dances are called Bhangra and Gidda in Punjab. These
songs and dances portray the various stages in our lives. They reflect the socio-religious
customs and practices of rural people earlier, but now are a part of modern city culture
also. No school programme is complete without them. They are linked through centuries
of celebration and might have started with fertility rites to obtain prosperity for the agricultural
community i.e. fertility of land and cattle but also of birth and survival of children. There are
many reasons for celebration that it is difficult to list them. Why don’t you make a list of
these activities and find out how and why people celebrate them. You will not only find this
activity interesting but you will be unable to put a full stop to it. Do you know why?
Because the number is so large that you will never be able to know all the music, dance
and drama that our country has.
India is a land of rich culture and heritage. Since the beginning of our civilization, music,
dance and drama have been an integral aspect of our culture. Initially, these art forms were
used as medium of propagation for religion and social reforms in which music and dance
were incorporated to gain popularity. From the Vedic era to the medieval period, the
performing arts remained an important source of educating the masses. The Vedas laid
down precise rules for the chanting of Vedic hymns. Even the pitch and the accent of
singing different hymns have been prescribed. There was more of exemplary presentation
through them than education or social reforms. Presently, these art forms have become
means of entertainment for people all over the world.
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OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
explain the aims and objectives of performing arts and their development through
various stages;
describe the utility of performing arts during the ancient and the medieval period;
recognise the contribution of Sufi and Bhakti saints to music;
distinguish between Hindustani classical music and Carnatic music;
appreciate the contribution of classical dances, folk music as well as folk dances
in Indian culture;
explain the development of drama through various phases in India and recognise
the contribution of folk theatre;
examine the importance of the three art forms in the development of human
personality; and
analyse the present scenario of music, dance and drama.
12.1 CONCEPT OF PERFORMING ARTS
What is art? “Art is an expression of all characteristics of the human mind aesthetically”.
These characteristics, i.e. the varied human emotions, are known as ‘RAS’. In Hindi, ‘ras’
literally means a sugary juice. It signifies the ultimate satisfaction of ‘aanand’. Human emotions
can be categorized into nine sub-headings or ‘navras’. They are:
1.Hasya — laughter
2.Bhayanak — evil Shringar — aesthetics
3.Rudra — chivalrous
4.Karun — pathos
5.Vir — courage
6.Adbhut — astonishing
7.Vibhatsa — terrifying glory
8.Shaanti — peace
9.Shringaar — decorating one’s self
Art reflects human emotions and human beings spontaneously express their frame of mind
through various art forms. Thus the intellectual mind merges with the artistic streak, giving
birth to art. The expression is reflected in various styles like singing, dancing, drawing,
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and Architecture painting, acting, sculpture. Some of these are expressed through live performances and
others through visual arts. Sketching, painting, sculpture are visual arts. Singing, dancing,
acting are attributes of performing arts. Music from time immemorial has been the most
popular art form of India. They are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ne
The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama Veda which contained the
slokas that were put to music. Chanting of Vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent
still form a part of religious rituals. The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts
is Bharata’s Natyashashtra (compiled between second century BC and second century
AD) which has six chapters on music. Another major text is Matanga’s Brihaddesi compiled
between eight and ninth century AD. In this work ragas were first named and discussed at
great length. Sangeet Ratnakara written by Sarangdeva in the thirteenth century mentions
264 ragas. A variety of string and wind instruments were invented over the period of time.
In ancient texts references have been made to flutes, drums, veena, and cymbals. Many
rulers such as Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and King Someshavra of Kalyana
patronised music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an accompolished
musician. In some of his coins, he is shown playing on the Veena. Music was also associated
with the worship of Gods and Goddess in the temples. In the twelfth century, Jayadeva of
Orissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the Gita Govinda, each song of which
was set in a raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna.
Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055) Abhinavabharati provides useful information about music.
Tamil music has a number of terms and concepts parallel to what is found in Sanskrit texts.
The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars too set their psalms (poems) to music.
Similarly in the medieval period the Sufi and Bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis
were sung in Sufi khanqahs and devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular
with the Bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa, Vidyapati
are closely associated with religious music. Great scholars like Amir Khusrau contributed
equally to the promotion of music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur and his
wife Rupmati introduced new ragas. Kitabe Navras written by Ibrahim Adil Shah II
during the seventeenth century is a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities as well as
Muslim saints. The most famous musician of Akbar’s court was Tansen and there was
nobody to match him, even though there were all kinds of singers. Baiju Bawra was also a
well known musician during Akbar’s time. The patronage given to these artists by the
ancient and medieval rulers have been instrumental in keeping the traditions alive. In fact
the Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. According to Lanepoole- “Babar himself
was fond of music. He is supposed to have developed some very popular musical style
forms like Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustrated Indian texts on
music. Akbar composed songs and encouraged musicians. Swami Haridas and his disciples
composed many songs in different tunes. Pundarika Vittal was a great scholar of music
who wrote the famous Ragamala. Hindustani Music was also enriched by devotional songs
sung by Mira Bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.1
Answer the following questions:
1.What are the different forms of performing arts?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Besides entertaining and recreation what other impact does performing arts do?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Which is the earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name the text compiled between 8th and 9th century AD of performing art?
_______________________________________________________________
5.In which work do we find the ragas were first named and discussed at great length?
_______________________________________________________________
6.How many ragas were mentioned in Sangeet Ratnakara?
_______________________________________________________________
7.What was the theme of Jaya Deva’s Gita Govinda?
_______________________________________________________________
8.Name the two Tamil poets who set their psalms (poems) to music.
_______________________________________________________________
9.Who wrote Kitabe Navras?
_______________________________________________________________
10.What was the contribution of Baz Bahadur ruler of Malwa and his wife Rupmati to
music?
_______________________________________________________________
12.2 DIVISIONS OF INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC
During the medieval period Indian classical music was broadly based on two traditions,
the Hindustani classical music prevalent in North India and the Carnatic music of South
India.
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and Architecture Hindustani Classical Music
Hindustani classical music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate and to
Amir Khusrau (AD 1253-1325) who encouraged the practice of musical performance
with particular instruments. He is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is
said to have introduced new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to
Tansen. Different styles of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and
Tappa. It is said that Tansen’s music had the effect of magic. He could stop the rising
waves of the Yamuna and by the force of his ‘Megh Rag’ he could cause the rain to fall. In
fact his melodious songs are sung in every part of India even now with great interest. Some
of Akbar’s courtiers patronised Musicians like Baiju Bawra, Surdas etc.
The most popular ragas are: Bahar, Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhim Palasi, Darbari, Desh,
Hamsadhwani, Jai Jayanti, Megha Malhar, Todi, Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan, Khambaj.
India also has a rich variety of musical instruments of different types. Amongst the stringed
instruments the most famous are sitar, sarod, santoor and sarangi. Pakhawaj, tabla and
Mridangam are precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai and nadaswaram
are some of the chief wind instruments.
The musicians of Hindustani classical music are usually associated to a gharana or a
particular style of music. Gharanas refer to hereditary linkages of musicians which represent
the core of the style and distinguish them from the other. The gharanas function in gurushishya
parampara, that is, disciples learning under a particular guru, transmitting his
musical knowledge and style, will belong to the same gharana. Some famous gharanas
are Gwalior gharana, Kirana gharana, and Jaipur gharana.
Devotional music like kirtan, bhajan, ragas contained in the Adi Grantha and singing in the
Majlis during Muharram also deserve a special place in Indian music. Along with this, folk
music also shows a very rich cultural heritage.
12.3 CARNATIC MUSIC
The compositions in Carnatic music may be attributed collectively to three composers
who lived between AD 1700 and 1850. They were Shyam Shastri, Thyagaraja and
Mutthuswami Dikshitar. Purandardasa was another great composer of Carnatic music.
Thyagaraja is revered both as a saint and an artist and epitomises the essence of Carnatic
music. The main compositions are known as kriti and are devotional in nature. The three
great musicians experimented with new forms. Some notable musicians of this period are
Maha Vaidyanath Ayyar (1844-93), Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar (l854-1902) and Ramnad
Srinivasa lyengar (l860-1919). Flute, veena, nadaswaram, mridangam, ghatam are some
of the instruments to accompany Carnatic music.
Despite contrasting features between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one can find some
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similarities, for example, the Carnatic alapana is similar to alap in Hindustani classical. and Architecture
Tilana in Carnatic resembles Tarana of Hindustani. Both lay stress on tala or talam.
12.4 MODERN INDIAN MUSIC
With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments such
as violin and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music. Orchestration of music on stage
is a new development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas.
Performance which were earlier limited to a privileged few have now been thrown open to
the public and can be viewed by thousands of music lovers throughout the country. Music
education no longer depends on the master-disciple system but can be imparted through
institutions teaching music.
Musicians
Amir Khusrau, Sadarang Adaranga, Miyan Tansen, Gopal Nayak, Swami Haridas, Pt.
V.D. Paluskar, Pt. V.N. Bhatkhande, Thyagaraja Mutthuswami Dikshitar, Pt. Omkar,Nath
Thakur, Pt. Vinaik Rao Patwardhan, Ustad Chand Khan, Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan,
Ustad Faiyaz Khan, Ustad Nissar Hussain Khan, Ustad Amir Khan, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi,
Pt. Kumar Gandharva, Kesarbai Kerkar and Smt. Gangubai Hangal are all vocalists.
Among the instrumentalists Baba Allauddin Khan, Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Bismillah Khan,
Ustad Alla Rakkha Khan, Ustad Zakir Hussain are some of the well known musicians.
12.5 FOLK MUSIC
Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music represents
the emotion of the masses. The simple songs are composed to mark every event in life.They
may be festivals, advent of a new season, marriage or birth of a child. Rajasthani folk
songs such as Mand and Bhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India. Ragini is a popular
form of folk songs of Haryana.
Folk songs have their special meanings or messages. They often describe historical events
and important rituals. Kashmir’s Gulraj is usually a folklore and Pandyani of Madhya
Pradesh is a narrative put to music. Muslims sing Sojkhwani or mournful songs during
Muharram and Christmas carols and choral music are sung in groups on the festive occasions.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.2
1.What are the two division of Indian classical music?
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and Architecture 2.What are the different styles of Hindustani music?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What is Gharana in Hindustani classical music?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name some of the famous Hindustani music gharana of India?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What is Kriti in carnatic music?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Name few composers of carnatic music of India?
_______________________________________________________________
7.What are some of the main instruments that accompany carnatic music?
_______________________________________________________________
8.What are two similar features of Hindustani and Carnatic music?
_______________________________________________________________
12.6 DANCES OF INDIA
The Rig Veda mentions dance (nrti) and danseuse (nrtu) and compares the brilliant dawn
(usas) to a brightly attrived danseuse. In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance
and music are mentioned together. The Epics are full of references to dances on earth and
heaven.
Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power
of expression and emotions while telling a story.
In India, the art of dancing may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of
the bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa
performed dances.
In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to
religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction
of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the
popularity of dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the
southern part of the country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their
different forms. In fact classical dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak,
Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of our cultural heritage.
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It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is obvious that dance came and Architecture
into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and
classical. The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts.
The dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for
entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than
praying to God. In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an
important aspect of the rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells
us stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related
to the stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the
worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and the stories related to Lord
Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts in medieval
times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, that were also performed with
accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also preformed for
religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were
performed in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through
Bihu. Similarly Garba of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram,
Koli, the fisherman’s dance of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are
unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the
masses.
As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata,
is a primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed
dance and its various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hasta
mudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categories
namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan), nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay).
Both men and women took keen interest in dance but generally women dancers were
looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great music thinkers and various
religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold women performers
with great respect.
In the medieval period Kathak dance form was promoted by the Muslim rulers. We hear
of these performances in the courts of most of the Mughal rulers except for Aurangzeb. In
the south, temples, ‘court’ and other parts of the building provided an important stage for
all dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted
in the form of dance. Some rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of
music and dance and here the seeds of the Lucknow gharana or ‘school of dance’ was
sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj all have come from the Lucknow
school of dance. In the medieval period, the south remained very rigid with the rules of
dances that were imbibed from ancient Sanskrit texts. It became a seat of learning and
institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern region.
In the modern period, we find maximum dance forms in the south Indian classical dance
stream. They are Kucchipudi, Bharatnatyam, Mohiniatyam, Kathakali. On the eastern
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and Architecture side, Odissi dance flourished greatly.
Along with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the
local dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s
dance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have
flourished in India. They are equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation.
Practically every region of our country has developed their own rich tradition of folk
dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla of
Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly we also have some dances which
are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of
Manipur among the more famous ones.
Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have
opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music.
Indira Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, Gandharva Maha-
Vidyalaya, Kathak Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in
their own ways. Music conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading
music to nooks and corners of India. Societies like Spic-macay, India International Rural
Cultural Centre have worked very hard to bring about a rapport and bondage with artists
and the modern generation.
Abroad musicians have also flourished and different institutions of music started by Pt.
Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Alla Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres
for foreigners. Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and
diplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate
in various festivals and occasions.
Well-known Dancers of Modern India
Kathak
Pt. Birju Maharaj, Pt. Shambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Pt. Gopi Krishna, and Pt.
Lacchu Maharaj.
Bharatanatyam
Saroja Vaidyanathan, Padma Subhramaniam, Geeta Chandran.
Odissi
Kelucharan Mahapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Kiran Sehgal and Madhavi Mudgal.
Kuchipudi
Swapna Sundari, Satya Narayan Sarma, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy and Sonal
Mansingh.
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Bharata, Matangamuni, Naradamuni, Pt. Sharangadeva, Pt. Somnath, and Pt. Ahobala.
Pt. Vyankatmakhi, Pt. Ramamatya, S.M. Tagore, and Acharya K.C.D.Brihaspati.
In the last few decades the status of dance as well as its performers has changed. Young
people have started learning dance to enrich their personal qualities. In some of the schools,
colleges and universities separate departments have been established for imparting training
in dance. Several renowned classical dancers have been awarded national awards like the
Padmashree and the Padmabhusan.
Throughout the different periods of history starting from the dancing figure found in the
Indus valley civilization to the present, Indian people have expressed their joys and sorrows
by singing and dancing through various art forms. This art form has been used to express
their love, hatred, their aspirations and their struggle for survival which ultimately led to the
enrichment of our culture.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.3
1.What represents the Natraja figure of Lord Shiva?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What are the two forms of dances?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Match the following:-
Folk Dance form State
Bihu Bengal
Garba Mizoram
Bhangra & Giddha Maharashtra
Bamboo dance Kashmir
Koli Punjab
Dhumal Gujarat
ChuAssam
4.What are the three broad categories of a dance?
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and Architecture 5.Name the two famous dancers of Kathak.
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6.Name some well known dancers of Bharatnatyam.
_______________________________________________________________
12.7 DRAMA
Indigeneous tradition as well as modern research trace the origin of Indian drama to the
Vedas. In the Ramayana we hear of drama troupes of women while Kautilyas Arthshastra
mentions musicians, dancers and dramatic shows.
Drama is a performing art, which has also been practised since times immemorial. Drama
could spring from a child’s play. The child enacts, mimics, and caricates which was definitely
the beginning of drama.
Since early times mythological stories of war between the gods, goddesses and the devils
is known. Bharata wrote Natyashastra and created the plays known as Asura Parajaya
and Amrit Manthan. Natyashastra is one of the greatest texts written in the field of
drama and other performing arts.
The next epoch is that of the great Bhasa who wrote plays based on the stories of Udayana,
the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Swapana Vasabdatta being his masterpiece. In the second
century B.C. Patanjalis’ Mahabhasya refers to several aspects of drama i.e. the actors, the
music, the stage, rasa in the performances called Kamsavadha and Balibandha.
While referring to drama, Bharata has mentioned nat (male artists), and nati (female artist),
music, dance, musical instruments, dialogues, themes and stage. Thus we find that drama
achieved a great level of perfection during the age of Bharata. For Bharata, drama is a
perfect means of communication. He also started the concept of an enclosed area for
drama. There is mention of a community called’ shailoosh’ which had professional drama
companies. The practice of singing heroic tales became popular. As a result professional
singers called kushilavas came into existence.
During the age of the Buddha and Mahavira, drama was a means of communicating the
principles of their respective religions. Short skits and long plays were enacted to preach
and educate the masses. Music and dance also played a vital role in increasing the appeal
of drama.
In the ancient period till the tenth century, the language of the educated, was Sanskrit. So
dramas were performed mostly in this language. However, characters belonging to lower
classes and women were made to speak Prakrit. Kautilya’s Arthashastra Vatsyayan’s
Kamasutra, Kalidasa’s Abhijnan Shakuntalam were all written in Sanskrit and were
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significant plays of those times. Bhasa was another celebrated dramatist who wrote thirteen and Architecture
plays. Prakrit plays became popular by the tenth century AD. Vidyapati who lived sometime
during the fourteenth century was an important dramatist. He introduced Hindi and other
regional languages in the form of songs. Umapati Mishra and Sharada Tanaya were also
instrumental in promoting drama during this time.
In the context of drama, two types developed — the classic drama, which had intricacies
of theme and subtle nuances of dramatic traits and folk theatre. It was of spontaneous and
extempore nature. Local dialect was used in folk theatre and hence in different provinces
many types of folk theatres developed. Acting with accompaniment of music and dance
was the popular practice. Many names were given to the forms of folk theatre in different
provinces like:
1)Bengal - Jatra, Kirtania Natak
2)Bihar-Bideshia
3)Rajasthan - Raas, Jhumar, Dhola Maru
4)Uttar Pradesh - Raas, Nautanki, Svaang, Bhaand
5) Gujarat - Bhawaii
6)Maharashtra - Larite, Tamasha
7)Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka - Kathakali, Yakshagana
Kuntleshwar Daityam is a drama that testifies to the fact that Kalidasa belonged to
the Gupta Age.
Instruments like dhol, kartal, manjira, khanjira were some props used in folk theatre.
The medieval period was rich in music and dance but theatre did not get much prominence.
Wajid Ali Shah, a great patron of art was also an important patron of drama. He enthused
artists to participate in theatre and supported them. In the southern region, folk theatre
with the use of local dialects was more popular.
The advent of the British in the country changed the character of the society. In the eighteenth
century a theatre was established in Calcutta by an Englishman. A Russian named Horasim
Lebedev founded a Bengali theatre which marked the beginning of modern Indian theatre
in India. English drama, especially by Shakespeare, influenced Indian drama. The stages
evolved by educated Indians were different from traditional open air theatre. The stages
now had rolling curtains and change of scenes. A Parsi company founded in Bombay
showed that theatre could be used for commercial purposes. Dramas began to depict
tragedies, comedies and the complexities of urban life. Dramas were now written in different
regional languages. Side by side, folk theatre like jatra, nautanki, khyal (Rajasthani
folk), and naach also flourished. Another aspect which influenced performing arts was the
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and Architecture adaptation of folk forms to classical forms. Connoisseurs in different fields made their
respective arts a medium for serving the cause of the masses. So they adapted the popular
folk arts to reach out to people. A similar situation appeared in the case of writing of
drama. Vidyasundar, a popular drama of the medieval period, was influenced by jatra.
Geet Govinda, an exemplary work by the great poet Jayadev, weaved stories of Krishna
in kirtania natak and jatra style.
At present, a lot of experiments are taking place in the field of drama. Western influences
are very clear in the works of Shambhu Mitra, Feisal Alkazi, Badal Sarkar, Vijay Tendulkar
and others.
Presently, various types of dramas are flourishing and some of them are :
a)Stage theatre
b) Radio theatre
c)Nukkar or street plays
d)Mono drama (one man show)
e) Musical theatre
f)Short skits
g)One act plays
For the content and thematic aspect of dance and drama, we must examine the works of
creative literature. The most important literary event, which influenced not only dance and
drama but painting also, was the composition of Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda in the 13th
century. Its great impact can be seen on dance and drama forms all over India—from
Manipur and Assam in the east to Gujarat in the west; from Mathura and Vrindavan in the
North, to Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the South... Innumerable commentaries on the Gita-
Govinda exist throughout the country. There are a large number of manuscripts dealing
with the Gita-Govinda as material for dance or drama and this work has been the basic
literary text used by many regional theatrical traditions. The spread of Vaisnavism during
this period gave further impetus to the development of different forms of dance, drama and
music.
12.8 SOME IMPORTANT DRAMAS AND THEIR WRITERS
Drama is an art form which has a long historical background in India but its analytical
review and grammatical study was presented by Bharata in Natyashastra. In this text, it
has been mentioned that music and dance are essential parts of drama. Ramayana,
Mahabharata and the plays, written by Kalidasa, Bana Bhatta and Bhasa are examples of
the combination of all the three art forms- music, dance and drama. Some of the popular
dramas are listed below:
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S and Architecture . No.NAME WRITER
1. Meghadutam Kalidasa
2. Abhijnan Shakuntalam Kalidasa
3. Padmavati Madhusudan
4. Harshacharitam Bana Bhatta
5. Neel Devi Bharatendu
6. Satya Harish Chandra Bharatendu
7. Andher Nagri Bharatendu
8. Chandraval Jai Shankar Prasad
9. Ajatshatru Jai Shankar Prasad
10. Rajyashri Jai Shankar Prasad
11. Chandragupta Jai Shankar Prasad
12. Prayashchit Jai Shankar Prasad
13. Karunalaya Jai Shankar Prasad
14.Bharatendu Jai Shankar Prasad
INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.4
1.What were the initial forms of Drama?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the two plays of Bharata.
_______________________________________________________________
3.What according to Bharata is a perfect means of communication?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Which community had professional drama companies?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Who were Kushilavas?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What are the various types of drama flourishing these days?
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7.Name any two plays of Kalidasa.
_______________________________________________________________
8.Who wrote the play Padmavati?
_______________________________________________________________
9.Name two plays of Jai Shankar Prasad.
_______________________________________________________________
12.9 PRESENT SCENARIO OF THE PERFORMING ARTS
Presently, all the three art forms i.e. dance, music and drama are flourishing in the country.
Several music institution like Gandharva Mahavidyalaya and Prayag Sangeet Samiiti have
been imparting training in classical music and dance for more than fifty years. A number of
schools, colleges and universities in India have adopted these art forms as a part of their
curriculum. Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music.
Kathak Kendra, National School of Drama, Bharatiya Kala Kendra and many institutes
are all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, baithaks, lecture
demonstrations are being organised and musicians, music scholars, music teachers and
music critics are trying to popularise music and dance. Societies like Spic-macay, Sangeet
Natak Academies are also working hard to protect, develop and popularise Indian music,
dance and drama at the national and even international level.
At the international level musicians have made significant contribution. Different institutions
of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Ustad Alla Rakkha Khan
teach Indian music to foreigners. Many foreign universities have departments of Indian
performing arts and they award degrees and diplomas to students. All over the world
Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals. Various agencies
like Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR) and the Ministry of Human Resource
Development continuously propagate all these art forms by giving grants, scholarships and
fellowships to renowned artists as well as to young artists and by arranging exchange
programmes in the field of Indian music, dance and drama.
12.10 ART FORMS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN
PERSONALITY
The association of people with these art forms definitely makes them better human beings
as the very nature of music, dance and drama elevates human soul and creates a pleasant
atmosphere. The knowledge and practice of these art forms help in the development of
one’s personality. The people involved in these art forms can attain balance and peace of
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mind, self-restraint and love for all. Their performance makes them self-confident and and Architecture
capable of adapting to all circumstances. Negative feelings vanish as the soul of music,
dance and drama teaches us all about loving and caring.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.5
Answer the following questions:
1.Name the Ministry of the Government of India propagating the three forms of Performing
Arts.
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name an agency of the Government of India working in the development of Performing
Arts.
_______________________________________________________________
3.How does government promote renowned artists?
_______________________________________________________________
4.How are performing arts helpful to us?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The three art forms - music, dance and drama - have been an integral aspects of
Indian culture.
We owe much to Bharata, the author of Natyashastra for his contribution in the field
of drama.
The political turmoil in the country for many years did not diminish the influence of
these art forms.
The masses and the experts both took great pains and interest to retain the classicism
in the art forms.
Performing arts in India have been influenced to a significant extent by the Western
impact.
Even in the present times, there is an enhanced status of these art forms in the country
and abroad.
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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.What was the aim and objective of performing arts in India?
2.Trace the development of performing arts in India?
3.Describe the changes introduced in the modern Indian music?
4.What is the significance of folk songs? Name some folk songs.
5.What is the importance of classical forms of dance? Name some of the classical dance
forms of India.
6.Drama has undergone a sea of change with the advent of British - Explain.
7.Performing arts have a great potential to grow in India - Explain.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
12.1
1. Dance, Drama, Music
2.It is also a source of education to masses.
3.Bharata’s Natyashastra. It was possibly compiled between 2nd century BC and 2nd
centuary AD.
4.Matanga’s Brihaddesi
5.Brihaddesi Texts
6.264 ragas
7.Love of Radha and Krishna
8.Saivit nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars
9.Ibrahim Adil Shah II
10.They introduced new ragas
12.2
1.(a) The Hindustani classical music of North India.
(b) The Carnatic music of South India
2.Dhrupad, Dhammar, Thumri, Khayal and Tappa
3.They are a particular style of music on guru-shiksha parampara
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4 and Architecture .Jaipur Gharana, Kirana Gharana, Gwalior Gharana
5.Main composition
6.(a) Shyam Shastri
(b) Thyagaraja
(c) Mutthuswami
(d) Purandardasa
7.Flute, Veena, Nadaswaram, Mridangam, Ghatam.
8.(a) Carnatic Alpana is similar to alap in Hindustani music.
(b) Tilana in carnatic resembles with Tarana of Hindustani music.
(c) Both lay stress on tala or talam
9.(a) Mand - Rajasthan
(b) Bhatiali - Bengal
10.These are simple songs composed to mark every event in life.
12.3
1.Creation and destruction of cosmic cycle.
2.Classical form of dance and fold dances.
3.Bihu Assam
Garba Gujarat
Bhangra and Giddha Punjab
Bamboo dance Mizoram
Koli Maharashtra (fisherman’s dance)
Dhumal Kashmir
Chou Bengal
4.(a) Nritta (Pada Sanchalan)
(b) Nritya (anga sanchalan)
(c) Natya (abhinaya)
5.Pt. Birju Maharaj, Pt. Sambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Pt. Gopi Krishna and Pt. Lacchu
Maharaj
6.(a) Geeta Chandran
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(c) Smt. Saroja Vaidhyanathan
12.4
1.The child enacts, mimics and caricates.
2.Asura Parajaya, Amrit Manthan
3.Drama
4.Shailoosh
5.Professional singers singing heroic tales dramatically.
6.(a) Stage theatre
(b) Radio Theatre
(c) Nukkar or street plays
(d) Mono drama (one man show)
(e) Musical theatre
(f) Short skits
(g) One act plays
7.(a) Abhijnam Shakuntalam
(b) Vikramorvashiyam (c) Malvikagnimitram
8.Madhusudan
9.(a) Ajatshatru
(b) Chandragupta
(c) Prayashchit
(d) Rajyashri
(e) Karunalaya
12.5
1.The Ministry of Human Resources and Development.
2.Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR)
3.By giving grants, scholarships, fellowship and also by arranging exchange programmes.
4.The preforming arts gives us balance of mind, self-restraint, and love for all. It also
builds self-confident and gives us capability of adapting in all circumstances.
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13
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
At times it becomes very important to be reminded that we are that civilization
which has spanned atleast 4,500 years and which has left its impact on
nearly everything in our lives and society. Imagine UNESCO has listed 830 World
Heritage Sites, out of which 26 are in India. This is less than six other countries. Is this not
a tangible proof of the creative genius and industry of this ancient land, people, and also of
the gifts bestowed on it by nature. Be it the Bhimbetka’s pre historic rock art at one end or
the innumerable palaces, mosques, temples, gurudwaras, churches or tombs and sprawling
cities and solemn stupas.
Going through the cities of Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Mumbai and Calcutta etc. you find many
beautiful buildings. Some are monuments, palaces, temples, churches, mosques and
memorials. Many of them had their foundation before Christ and many after the coming of
Christ. Many generations have been a part of this architecture which stands mighty and
lofty reminding us of that glorious past which has been ours. This is because art and
architecture forms an important part of Indian culture. Many distinctive features that we
find in the architecture today developed throughout the long period of Indian history. The
earliest and most remarkable evidence of Indian architecture is found in the cities of the
Harappan Civilization which boast of a unique town planning. In the post Harappan period
architectural styles have been classified as Hindu, Buddhist and Jain, The medieval period
saw the synthesis of Persian and indigenous styles of architecture. Thereafter the colonial
period brought the influence of Western architectural forms to India. Thus Indian architecture
is a synthesis of indigenous styles and external influences which has lent it a unique
characteristic of its own.
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OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
identify the main characteristics and various styles of Indian architecture and
sculpture at different times;
trace the evolution of Indian architecture over the years;
recognise the contribution of Buddhism and Jainism to the development of Indian
architecture;
appreciate the role played by Gupta, Pallava and Chola rulers in the flourishing
temple architecture of India;
identify the different influences that marked the architectural impressions of the
medieval period; and
point out the important architectural style under the colonial regime.
13.1 ARCHITECTURE-ORIGINS AND INDIAN
PERSPECTIVE
Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began
to build his own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own shelter when he
stepped out from the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of
man awakened in the search for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build,
with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seemed pleasing to the eye. Thus emerged
architecture which is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders and
capabilities of the workers.
Architectural Forms and Construction Details: Architecture accommodated the local
and regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity, religious
practice of different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities
and helps us understand the rich traditions of India.
Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country.
Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods,
evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic
developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the
sub-continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian
architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so
has the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of
evolution of Indian Architecture.
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13.2 HARAPP and Architecture AN PERIOD
The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisation revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with expert town
planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well planned
roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India
before the coming of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated
under the Archaeological Survey of India established by the British.
The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses
pillared halls and public baths.
Main features of Harappan remains are:
1.The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.
2,Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly
at the bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other
goods and also some protection by way of natural barriers of the river .
3.All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.
4.The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut each other at right
angles.
5.The Indus Valley people used standardised burnt mud-bricks as building material.
6.There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings,
administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards, There is no evidence
of temples.
7.Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea
of an organised collection and distribution system.
8.Along with large public buildings, there is evidence of small one roomed constructions
that appear to be working peoples quarters.
9.The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was
discovered at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and
there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence of what appears to be
a public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this
culture. It is significant that most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.
10. At some sites a dominant citadal was excavated in the western part containing the
public buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of
some kind of political authority ruling over the cities.
11.There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which
shows that there may have been a fear of being attacked.
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and Architecture 12.Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished
in those times by sea.
Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well planned drainage system in the
residential parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones
along the sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided
for the purpose of cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses were also meticulous.
Evidence of stairs shows houses were often double storied. Doors were in the side lanes
to prevent dust from entering the houses.
The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning
skills and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut
each other at right angles and were very well laid out. As the Indus Valley settlements were
located on the banks of the river, they were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of
this calamity, the Indus Valley people built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers
upon layers of settlements and buildings were found during the excavations. The decline
and final destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around the second millennium
BC remains a mystery to this day.
Many thick layers of well baked bricks laid in gypsum mortar were joined together
for the purpose of making the whole construction very strong. The strength of the
buildings can be seen by the fact that they have successfully survived the ravages of
atleast five thousand years.
The Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s first bronze
sculpture of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A terracotta figure of a male in
a yogic posture has also been excavated. Beautiful personal ornaments, soft stone seals
with a pictoral script and images of humped bulls, Pashupati unicorn have also been
excavated.
The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo and reeds; the
Aryan culture was largely a rural one and thus one finds few examples of grand buildings.
This was because Aryans used perishable material like wood for the construction of royal
palaces which have been completely destroyed over time. The most important feature of
the Vedic period was the making of fire altars which soon became an important and integral
part of the social and religious life of the people even today. In many Hindu homes and
especially in their marriages, these fire altars play an important role even today. Soon
courtyard and mandaps were build with altars for worship of fire which was the most
important feature of architecture. We also find references of Gurukuls and Hermitages.
Unfortunately no structure of the Vedic period remains to be seen. Their contribution to
the architectural history is the use of wood along with brick and stone for building their
houses.
In the 6th century B.C. India entered a significant phase of her history. There arose two
new religions - Jainism and Buddhism and even the Vedic religion underwent a change.
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Almost simultaneously larger states sprang up which further provided for a new type of and Architecture
architecture. From this period i.e. the expansion of Magadha into an empire, the development
of architecture received further impetus. From now it was possible to trace Indian
architecture in an almost unbroken sequence.
Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of early architectural
style. The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved
and at the major sites where important events in Buddha’s life took place. Stupas were
built of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was
built at his birthplace Lumbini; the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under
the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at
Kushinagar where he passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.
Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became important landmarks
of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These became important sites for
Buddha’s order of monks and nuns - the sangha. Monasteries (viharas), and centres of
preaching, teaching and learning came up at such places. Congregational halls (chaitya) for
teaching and interaction between the common people and the monks were also built up.
From now on religion began to influence architecture. While Buddhists and Jains began to
build stupas, Viharas and Chaityas, the first temple building activity started during the
Gupta rule.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.1
1.What do you mean by the evolution of Indian culture?
_______________________________________________________________
2.How did Harappan’s protect their civilization?
_______________________________________________________________
3.How were the engineering skills of Harappan people evident?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Where was the remains of Buddha buried?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Where were the Buddha’s statues found?
_______________________________________________________________
6.When was the first temple built in India?
_______________________________________________________________
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and Architecture 7.What do you mean by Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas?
_______________________________________________________________
8.Where was a dockyard excavated?
_______________________________________________________________
13.3 EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD
An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material
prosperity of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all
fields. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan
court described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement.
It was a large palace carved out of wood.
In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC)
especially under Ashoka architecture saw
a great advancement. Mauryan art and
architecture depicted the influence of
Persians and Greeks. During the reign of
Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars
were erected on which teachings of
‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly
polished pillars with animal figures
adorning the top (capitals) are unique and
remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath
pillar has been accepted as the emblem
of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft high.
The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are
symbols of the achievement of Mauryan
architechture. The gateways of the Sanchi
Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting
scenes from Jataka stories are specimens
of the skill and aesthetic sense of the
artisans.
The blending of Greek and Indian art led
to the development of Gandhara art which
developed later. The other schools of art
and architecture were the indigenous
Mathura school and Amaravati school. A large number of statues of the Buddha were built
by the artisans of these schools specially after first century AD under the influence of the
Kushanas. Under the Gandhara school of art life-like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattavas
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were made in the likeness of Greek gods even, and Architecture
though the ideas, inspirations and subjects
were all Indian. Rich ornaments, custumes
drapery were used to impart physical beauty.
The sculptures were in stone, terracotta,
cement like material and clay.
The figures of the Mathura school were made
of spotted red stone. They had more of
spiritual look in them. Here along with
Buddha we find sculptures of Jaina dieties
also.
The Amaravati school developed under the
patronage of the Satavahanas of the
Andhra region. A great stupa was built at
Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region.
The walls of the stupa are adorned with
bas relief, had carved medallion and
decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is
another place that is famous for Buddhist
architecture.
The Gupta period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples.
An example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) which had a central shrine or
garbhagriha where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon (Kanpur
district) are two fine examples of this period..
Cave architecture
The development of cave architecture is another
unique feature and marks an important phase in
the history of Indian architecture. More than
thousand caves have been excavated between
second century BC and tenth century AD.
Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora
caves of Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of
Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas,
chaityas as well as mandapas and pillared temples
of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Rock-cut temples
Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in
western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The chaitya at Karle with fine high
halls and polished decorative wall is a remarkable example of rock-cut architecture. The
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and Architecture Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakutas and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram
built by the Pallavas are other examples of rock-cut temples.
Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the patrons of art and
builders who decorated these temples with beautiful sculptures.
Free-standing temples
The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later
periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of
the Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of temples. The Pallava rulers built the shore
temple at Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built other structural temples like Kailashnath
temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples
most famous being the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical
style of temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style, complete with vimana
or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. Magnificent temples were
built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings reached even greater heights.
In north and eastern India magnificent temples
were also constructed and the style followed
by them is referred to as the Nagara style.
Most of them consisted of the shikaras
(spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum)
and the mandap (pillared hall).
Orissa has some of the most beautiful temples
such as the Lingaraja temple built by the
Ganga rulers and the Mukteshwara temple
at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple
at Puri.
The sun temple at Konark was built in
thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler
Narshimha Deva I. The temple is dedicated
to Surya (the sun god) and has been designed
as a twelve-wheeled chariot.
The temple complex at Khajuraho was built
by Chandella rulers between the tenth and
eleventh centuries in the Bundelkhand region
of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among
them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras.
These were built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were
built under the patronage of Solanki rulers.
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Somnath temple at Gujarat, and Architecture Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Govinda temple at Mathura,
Kamakhya temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple
at Kalighat of Kolkata are some other important temples which bear testimony to temple
building activity of the Indian sub continent.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.2
1.How did Megasthenes describe the palace of Chandra Gupta Maurya?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the two stupas that shows the achievement of Mauryan architecture?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where were the teachings of Dhamma inscribed in Ashoka reign?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name the few schools of architecture of early historic period?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Where are Udaygiri caves?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Who built the Kailash temple of Ellora?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Who built the Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram?
_______________________________________________________________
8.What is Dravida style of architecture?
_______________________________________________________________
9.Name the temple built by Chola king at Tanjore?
_______________________________________________________________
10.Define Nagara style of architecture?
_______________________________________________________________
11.Who built the Sun temple at Konark?
_______________________________________________________________
12.Name the famous Jain temple at Mount Abu. Rajasthan.
_______________________________________________________________
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and Architecture 13.4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE
Delhi Sultanate
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth
century came a new technique of architecture- the
architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central
Asia. The engineering features of these buildings
were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces,
mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these
features which were blended with the features of
the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in
architecture was achieved. This happened because
the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of
the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful
and had already constructed beautiful buildings.
In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity
of the Islamic structure as well as the detailed
sculptures and designs they made on their own
indigenious structures. A middle path was followed
in all their designs in the architecture of this period.
The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub
Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five
stories. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower.
Many other buildings were later constructed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged
the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This
gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful architectural designs
even today. Decorative elements were used to make the building outstanding in its beauty.
He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of
Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some examples.
Though their buildings were not beautiful but had very strong walls, massive as well as
impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s
tomb at Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous
styles were adopted and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in
the process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made
sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy
and practical.
Regional Kingdoms
With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful
buildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad
Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture. In
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Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built. In the and Architecture
Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the
Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the
fort at Golkunda are just a few famous buildings. Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the
world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of north India. In
Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction
were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina
mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at
Gaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen
covering the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble
and is made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen. The
rulers of Vijayanagar, an empire which was established during this period also erected
many beautiful buildings and temples and had a number of achievements to their credit.
Though only ruins remain but the temples of Vithalswami and Hazar Rama at Hampi are
good examples.
BAHAMANI
The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples
of Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this
mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which
has a covered countryard.
Mughals
The advent of the Mughals brought a new
era in architecture. The synthesis of style
which began earlier reached its zenith
during this time. The architecture of
Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule.
The first building of this rule was Humayun’s
Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building
red stone was used. It has a main gateway
and the tomb is placed in the midst of a
garden. Many consider it a precursor of
the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaza reflects
the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar’s
victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps
the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai,
Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of
Persian and Indian elements. During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was
constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which
was built entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He
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and Architecture used marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful
arches and minarets were the features of his buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of
Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj
Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural
features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant
minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main building. The Mughal
style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The
buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and
pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions,
peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets
Next came the British who ruled the country for 200 years and left behind a legacy of
colonial style architecture in their buildings.
Monuments Built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri
The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important buildings.
The crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur
Sikri., 40 km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones. The Arch of the Buland
Darwaja is the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim Chisti is
exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture.
The Jama Masjid was built with the influence of the Persian style. The Dewan-i-Amm and
the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and
Panch Mahal are another notable buildings. The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in
five storeys. It was build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara.
From 1526, the Mughal architecture gave a totaly different dimension to tomb building.
These are built on platforms and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamental
fountains. A famous example is the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri - three domes of 290
ft by 470 ft and with two royal tombs.
Another famous tomb is Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra (A.D. 1593-1613). The Taj
Mahal, Agra (A.D. 1630) built by Shah Jehan is considered one of the ‘Wonders of
the World’. It is a royal tomb in marble built on a platform 18ft high and 313 ft.
square. Each corner is marked by a minaret 133ft high. The central dome is 80 ft.
high and 58ft in diameter. Marble is inlaid with semi-precious stones like jasper and
agate. It stands by the bank of the river Jamuna in the middle of marble terraces,
fountains and lakes flanked by cypress trees. Mughal architecture declined with the
failing political power of the Mughal Empire.
A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens
developed around the tombs and other buildings. The Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir
and lahore were developed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan respectively. The Mughals
encouraged cultural and architectural growth of India.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.3
1.What was the style of architecture of the Turks?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name some of the tombs and mosques constructed during the sultanate period?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Which is the largest dome in the world?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What is pietra dura?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Which building reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire?
_______________________________________________________________
13.5 COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE MODERN
PERIOD
The colonial influence can be seen in office buildings. Europeans who started coming from
sixteenth century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. Portuguese built
many churches at Goa, the most famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and the chruch of
Saint Francis. The British also built administrative and residential buildings which reflect
their imperial glory. Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades
or pillared buildings. Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples.
The architect Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It
is built of sandstone and has design features like canopies and jaali from Rajasthan. The
Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, the former capital of British India, is a huge edifice in marble.
It now houses a museum full of colonial artefacts. Writers’ Building in Calcutta, where
generations of government officers worked in British times, is still the administrative centre
of Bengal after independence. Some Gothic elements can be seen in the church buildings
like St. Paul’s Cathedral in Calcutta. The British also left behind impressive railway terminals
like the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. More contemporary styles of building are now in
evidence, after Independence in 1947. Chandigarh has buildings designed by the French
architect, Corbusier. In Delhi, the Austrian architect, Stein, designed The India International
Centre where conferences are held by leading intellectuals from all over the world and
more recently, the India Habitat Centre which has become a centre of intellectual activities
in the capital.
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and Architecture In the past few decades, there have been many talented Indian architects, some trained in
premier schools of architecture like the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA) in
Delhi. Architects like Raj Rewal and Charles Correa represent this new generation Raj
Rewal has designed the SCOPE Complex and JawaharVyapar Bhavan in Delhi. He takes
pride in using indigenous building material like sandstone for construction and also combines
steps and open spaces from the plazas of Rome. An example of this is the C1ET building
in Delhi. Charles Correa from Mumbai is responsible for the LIC Building in Connaught
Place, Delhi. He has used glass facades in the high-rise to reflect light and create a sense of
soaring height.
In domestic architecture in the last decade, Housing Cooperative Societies have
mushroomed in all metropolitan cities combining utility with a high level of planning and
aesthetic sense.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.4
1.Which were the most famous churches at Goa built by Protuguese?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name the architect who designed the Rashtrapati Bhavan.
_______________________________________________________________
3.Which architectural style can be observed in buildings built during British empire in
India?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What is contained in the Victoria Memorial building in Calcutta these day?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Who designed the city of Chandigarh?
_______________________________________________________________
6.Name the architect who deigned the India International Centre of Delhi?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Name some famous architects of modern India.
_______________________________________________________________
13.6 TOWNS AND CITIES IN INDIA
You have read in this lesson about the architecture of the ancient, medieval and modern
periods in India. In the previous section you read about the School of Planning and
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Architecture in Delhi. and Architecture You can see that Planning goes with Architecture. Do you know
that this Planning is actually Town Planning, which is linked with urban development? It
is evident that when we think or talk of architecture, we have to think of the related idea of
town planning or urban development. In this section we will learn about the growth and
development of towns and cities in India. It is indeed an interesting story. We would also
spend some time in going into details about the four major cities of contemporary India -
Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi. We will trace the origin of these cities and learn
about their important structures and buildings.
You would be surprised to know that starting from the Harappan civilization, (also known
as Indus-Saraswati Civilization by some historians), India has had a very long history of
town planning, which can be traced back to 2350 B.C. As you have already learnt, the
two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate drainage system, roads which
cut each other at right angles, a citadel which was built on a high ground and in the lower
parts lived the rest of the population. Kalibangam in Rajasthan and Surkoda in Kutch had
similar city structure. From 600 B.C. onwards, we come across more towns and cities
that were associated with both Aryan as well as Dravidian civilization. These were Rajgir,
Varanasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilavastu and Kausambhi besides
many others. We also come across many towns in the Mauryan period known as Janapadas
(small towns) and Mahajanapadas (big towns).
With the coming of the Muslims to India, the scene changed. Islamic influence became
evident in the towns. Mosques, forts and palaces now dotted the urban scene. According
to Abul Fazal, there were 2,837 towns in 1594 A.D. This was mainly because many
larger villages were transformed into smaller towns which came to be called qasbas. These
qasbas soon came to be occupied by local artisans and craftspersons, who started
specializing in their chosen craft, for example leather works and marble in Agra. Sind
specialized in cotton textiles, silk etc, while Gujarat excelled in the art of weaving gold and
silk threads and made brocades that were often exported to other countries.
As you know, later, during the 16th century, the Europeans came to India through the sea
route and thus began the establishment of new port towns like Panaji in Goa (1510),
Bombay in Maharashtra (1532), Machilipatnam (1605), Nagapattnam (1658), Madras
(1639) in the south and Calcutta (1690) in the east. The reason why these new port towns
were developed by the British was because during this time England had developed into a
leading industrial economy of the world, while India was the leading supplier of raw materials
for the British industries as well as a potential major buyer of these goods. After 1853,
railway lines were also laid out by the British to carry goods from the interiors to the ports
or connecting areas which were supplying raw materials or receiving finished goods. By
1905, nearly 28,000 miles of rail lines had been spread to serve the economic, political
and military interests of the British. Post and telegraph lines were also laid which were
needed for communication purposes.
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and Architecture By the beginning of the 20th century, Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata)
and Madras (now Chennai) had become well known important cities for administration,
commerce as well as industries. Some places like Dalhousie Square in Calcutta, Fort St.
George in Madras, Connaught Place in Delhi and the sea shores of Marine Drive in Bombay
reminded the Europeans of their home in England. But they also wanted the coolness of
their environs back home in Europe. So new centres developed in the hill stations near
these big cities to beat the sultry summer months of India, e.g. Mussoorie, Simla and
Nainital in the North; Darjeeling and Shillong in the East; Nilgiri and Kodaikanal in the
South.
New residential areas like Civil Lines and Cantonments came up in towns. The area
where civilian administrative Officers lived was called Civil Lines, while cantonments were
areas meant for the British Army Officers. Do you know that even today these two areas
are meant for the elite in the administration and the army as in those days?
Let us now read the four metropolitan cities of India – Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and
Delhi. Surely, you know these cities.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.5
1.Name 5 cities that came up in the ancient period in India.
i)________________, ii) ________________, iii) ________________,
iv) ________________, v) ________________
2.Name 5 places where ports were set up by the British.
i)________________, ii) ________________, iii) ________________,
iv) ________________, v) ________________
3.Name 5 Hill Stations developed by the British.
i)________________, ii) ________________, iii) ________________,
iv) ________________, v) ________________
4.Who lived in the Civil Lines?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What was the Cantonment?
_______________________________________________________________
13.6.1 Chennai
Chennai, formerly known as Madras, is the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu, and is one
of the four metropolitan cities of India. The city grew up around Fort Saint George, and
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with time, absorbed the surrounding towns and villages. In the 19th century and Architecture , the city became
the seat of Madras Presidency, the southern division of British Imperial India. After
independence in 1947, the city became the capital of Madras State, which was renamed
as Tamil Nadu in 1968. It has retained its traditional Tamil Hindu culture, and has been
able to provide a unique blend of foreign influence and Indian culture. Chennai’s British
influence is evident in various cathedrals, buildings, and wide tree-lined avenues.
The High Court Building, built in 1892, was said to be the largest judicial building in the
world after the Courts of London. The main hallmark of Fort St George, its decorative
domes and corridors, are reminiscent of new architecture.
The Ice House was used to store enormous blocks of
ice cut from the Great Lakes in northern USA and shipped
to India for refrigeration purposes during the colonial rule.
Another beautiful structure that came up during this time
was the Church of St. John that had wide Gothic arches
and beautiful stained-glass windows. It had the nave
and aisles, a tower and a spire. The walls are made of rubble,
faced with coarse Kurla Stone buff while the piers, arches, and
dressings are of Porbunder Stone; the roof is built of teakwood
and the floor of tiles imported from England.
Yet another structure worth mentioning that was built during this
period was the General Post Office. Completed in 1872, the
General Post Office in Chennai has a vast central hall, with a very
high dome. It was built in local basalt with dressings of yellow
stone from Kurla and white stone from Dhrangadra. It is an
important tourist attraction. Inside, the marble topped tables, the high vaulted ceilings, and
the sweeping staircases are designed for an ostentatious show of wealth and power of the
British.
13.6.2 Kolkata
It is interesting to explore the origin & history
of Kolkata. Do you know that it was the
capital of British India till 1911? It was
established as Calcutta in the year 1686, as a
result of the expansion plans of the British.
The city kept progressing until 1756, when
Siraj-ud-Daula (Nawab of Bengal) attacked
and succeeded in driving the British away from
the town. In 1757, the following year, Battle
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and Architecture of Plassey took place, in which Robert Clive took over the city by defeating the Nawab.
With the establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774, it became the seat of justice.
The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911. You may be
aware that Calcutta was officially renamed as Kolkata in 2001. Let us now take a look at
the famous structures and buildings of Kolkata that exist till today.
Howrah Bridge is located over the Hooghly
River. It connects the city of Howrah to
Calcutta. It stands on two 270 feet high pillars
and was constructed without using any nuts and
bolts. This bridge acts as an important symbol
of Kolkata. It is probably the busiest bridge of
the world.
Located in north Calcutta, Marble Palace
was constructed in 1835. It serves as an
exquisite art gallery. It displays marvelous
objects of art, sculptures, pictures & oil
paintings. It also has a zoo, where you can
find different kinds of birds and animals. In
fact, it has a rare collection of birds.
Fort William is situated at the banks of river
Hooghly. It was established by the British,
initiated by Robert Clive in 1696; it got
completed by 1780. The basic purpose of
setting up Fort William was to prevent attacks
from invaders. The area that was cleared
around the fort has become a maidan, where
several exhibitions and fairs take place till
today.
Victoria Memorial Hall in Calcutta is a fabulous
museum that was established in the year 1921.
It is a fantastic place that takes visitors into the
world of past history. Today, Victoria Memorial
is one of the finest art museums in Kolkata. It
is a 184 ft tall edifice that was constructed on
64 acres of land.
Do you know that Eden Gardens Cricket
Club in Calcutta came into existence in the
year 1864. Today it has the capacity to
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accommodate about 1, 20,000 persons. Eden Gardens of Calcutta definitely falls into the and Architecture
category of must see places.
The construction of Writers Building began
as early as in 1690. It got its name owing to
the fact that it served as the dwelling place for
the junior writers of the East India Company.
This Gothic structure came into existence
during the tenure of Lt. Governor Ashley Eden
(1877).
13.6.3 Mumbai
You know that Mumbai is located on the shores of Arabian Sea, on the West Coast of
India. You will be surprised to know that it was once a group of seven islands. Although its
site has been inhabited since pre-historic times, the city of Mumbai dates only to the arrival
of the British in the 17th century, when it came up as Bombay. However, it really took
shape in the 19th century. It was the first Indian city to have railways. Along with Calcutta,
it was one of the first two Indian cities where newspapers came into existence.
During the second half of the 19th century
many civic and public buildings were
constructed in Bombay in Victorian Gothic
Style e.g. the Secretariat (1874) the Council
Hall (1876) and Elphinstone College (1890).
But the most impressive style was the Victoria
Terminus (modern Chhatrapati Shivaji
Terminus), the massive railway construction
in 1887. It looks more like a cathedral than
a railway station. It contains carved stone
friezes, stained glass windows and flying
walls.
The famous Gateway of India was built with
yellow stone in Indo-Saracenic style of
architecture to honour the visit of King
George V and Queen Mary to India. It was
completed in 1924 at a cost of Rupees 24
lakhs, which was a fortune in those days. It
has a 26 metre high archway and is complete
with four turrets and intricate lattice work carved into the yellow basalt stone.
Since independence, Mumbai has continued to be India’s leading commercial and industrial
city. The stock exchange, the business centres, the famous film industry called Bollywood
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and Architecture and anything you call in the name of westernization and modernization is all here. As you
know, today it is the most important financial city of India with important industries like
textiles, finance and film making. You are aware of the famous Bollywood, the biggest film
industry in the world, where so many Hindi films are produced. Once known as the Gateway
to India, traces of British rule are still evident in the city of Mumbai.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.6
1.Name 4 famous places of Chennai.
i)____________________ ii) ____________________
iii) ____________________ iv) ____________________
2.Name 4 famous places of Kolkata.
i)____________________ ii) ____________________
iii) ____________________ iv) ____________________
3.Name 4 famous places of Mumbai.
i)____________________ ii) ____________________
iii) ____________________ iv) ____________________
13.6.4 Delhi
Do you know that Delhi became the capital of
British India in 1911? That is why Delhi
celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2011.
Evidently, it was in 1911 that the modern city
now called New Delhi came up. However, Delhi
has a history much older than that. It is believed
that there are at least seven important old cities
that have come together to form Delhi. The first
city of Delhi is believed to have been established
on the right bank of the Yamuna by Yudhishthira, the oldest of the Pandava brothers by the
name of Indraprastha. Surely, you remember the story of Mahabharata, which is the
legend of the Pandavas and Kauravas!
According to folklore, Delhi was founded by Raja Dhilu. During the 2nd century A.D,
Ptolemy, the Geographer marked Delhi in his map as Daidala.
But it was much before this that among the innumerable Harappa sites figures the city now
called Delhi. The evidence of this can be seen if you visit the National Museum at Delhi.
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From that time onwards, Delhi has continued to grow and Architecture . Today it has expanded so much that
it is now one of the largest cities, not only in the country, but in the whole world.
A very interesting legend is associated with Delhi. The
story goes like this: A snake Vasuki was pushed
underground by an Iron Pillar in the Qutab Minar
Complex during the time of King Ashoka. Several years
later, when the Tomar king Anang Pal of Lal Kot,
established his rule in Delhi, he pulled out this pillar and
set the serpent free. At that time, it was predicted that
no dynasty would now be able to rule over Delhi for
long. After the Tomars came the Chauhans, who built a city called Qila Rai Pithora in the
Lal Kot area, near Mehrauli. Prithvi Raj Chauhan of this dynasty ruled from Mehrauli.
Delhi again came into prominence when the Slave Dynasty came into power. You will
remember reading that Qutb-ud-din had started building the famous Qutub Minar, which
was later finished by Iltutmish.
Later, when Alauddin Khilji became the
Sultan, it was Siri that became the centre of
power. The Siri Fort still exists and this area
in Delhi is known as Shahpur Jat. Siri also has
an interesting story to tell. Alauddin Khilji’s
rule was constantly threatened by the Mongol
invasions. Some of these Mongols who stayed
back in the city rebelled. Alauddin Khilji got
them beheaded and their heads were buried
under the walls of the city. That is how the
place came to be called Siri. As you know
the word sir means head. We still use that
word for head.
Some years later, when the Tughlaq
dynasty came to power, Sultan
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq constructed the
city called Tughlaqabad. This was
designed as a fortified town. After
Ghiyasuddin’s death, Mohammed Bin
Tughlaq (1320-1388) enclosed the
earlier cities of Delhi into a single unit
and named it Jahanpanah.
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and Architecture Ibn Batuta, who served in the court of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq, has given a very interesting
description of this city. He has described it as “…..the metropolis of India, a vast and
magnificent city, uniting beauty with strength. It is surrounded by a wall that has no equal in
the world, and is the largest city in India, nay rather the largest city in the entire Moslem
Orient.”
Another important ruler of Tughlaq dynasty was Firoz Shah. During his reign, Delhi had an
enormous population and covered an extensive area. He constructed Firozabad, located
near Firoz Shah Kotla. However, the invasion of Timur, the king of Samarkand, in 1398,
destroyed its glory, including the city of Jahanpanah. Timur took with him Indian architects
and masons to build the mosques at Samarkand. The succeeding rulers shifted their capital
to Agra.
It was the Mughal ruler Humayun, who built Dinpanah on the mound of ancient
Indraprastha. However, it was Humayun’s grandson, Shah Jehan, who revived the lost
glory of Delhi. He started building the Red Fort in 1639 and finished it in 1648. In 1650,
he started the work of building the famous Jami Masjid. Shah Jehan’s city was called
Shahjahanabad. Great poets such as Dard, Mir Taki Mir and Mirza Ghalib, etc. made
Ghazals and the language of Ghazals, i.e. Urdu famous during this period. It is believed
that Shahjahanabad was more beautiful than Baghdad in Iraq and Constantinople in Turkey.
Over the centuries, the city was looted and destroyed by the armies of Nadir Shah (1739),
Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748) as well as continuous attacks from within. All these weakened
the city. But, in spite of all these problems, Delhi still had much to offer - Music, Dance,
Drama and variety of delicious food along with a rich cultural language and literature.
It was said that Delhi was the home to at least 24 Sufis of which the most famous were
from the Jahanpanah area. Some of them were:
1.Kutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki whose khanqah or dera was at Mehrauli;
2.Nizamuddin Auliya, whose khanqah was at Nizamuddin;
3.Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, who is popularly known today as Chiragh-e-Delhi;
4.Amir Khusro, who was a great poet, magician and scholar.
After 1707, the Mughal power weakened and Delhi became a pale shadow of itself. In
1803, the British occupied Delhi after defeating the Marathas. The areas around Kashmere
Gate and Civil Lines became important centres, where the British built many structures. In
1911, the British shifted their capital to Delhi and built an entirely new city called New
Delhi. It was made on a majestic scale. The large structure of the India Gate, the Viceroy
House which is now the Rashtrapati Bhavan, Parliament House and the North and South
Blocks were all made to impress the Indian subjects of the British rule. They were meant
to show the supremacy, the majestic power as well as the regality of the British. This new
city was completed by 1932. The Connaught Place still remains an important commercial
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centre of the city and Architecture . Delhi remains an important commercial, cultural and political centre of
India. Massive buildings, beautiful parks, flyovers, the Metro, a beautiful airport, educational
centres, museums, big wholesale markets, Embassies and High Commissions of all countries
of the world, large malls, major industries, etc. all contribute to making it a beautiful city. It
is said: Dilli hai dil walon ki (Delhi belongs to those who have a large heart).
INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.7
1.Match the cities within Delhi with the king who built them
S. No.Name of the City Name of king who built it
1.Indraprastha Prithvi Raj Chauhan
2.Lal Kot Mohammed Bin Tughlaq
4.MehrauliYudhishthira
5.Siri Firoz Shah Tughlaq
6.Jahanpanah Humayun
7.Tughlaqabad Shah Jehan
8.Firozabad Alauddin Khilji
9.Dinpanah Anang Pal Tomar
10.Shahjahanabad Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
2.Name 4 famous Sufi saints of the Jahanpanah area.
i)____________________ ii) ____________________
ii)____________________ iv) ____________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The history of Indian architecture and sculpture is as old as the civilization of lndus
Valley.
Architecture holds the key to the understanding of the cultural diversity of any part of
India as it is influenced by the cultural traditions and religious practices of different
times.
Buddhism and Jainsim helped in the development of early architectural style of India in
building stupas, viharas and chaityas.
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and Architecture During the time of Gupta, Pallavas and Cholas temple architecture flourished.
Delhi Sultanate and Mughals brought with them Persian influence and we witness an
Indo-persian style of architecture.
The Britishers and other colonial powers brought the European impact on Indian
architecture and effected a synthesis of those with indigenous styles and also instituted
the typical colonial style of architecture where materials were used to fashion majestic
buildings and offices.
Starting from the Harappa civilization, India has had a very long history of town planning,
which can be traced back to 2350 B.C.
Several towns came up since then.
There were 2,837 towns in 1594.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata)
and Madras (now Chennai) had become well known important cities for administration,
commerce as well as industries.
Delhi became the capital of British India in 1911. However, Delhi has a history much
older than that.
It is believed that there are at least seven important old cities that have come together
to form Delhi. These are probably Indraprastha, Lal Kot, Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlaqabad,
Firozabad and Shahjahanabad
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Describe architectural styles of Harappan civilization.
2.Elaborate the contributions of Gupta, Pallavas and Chola rulers in the temple architecture
of India.
3.What were the different styles of architecture and sculpture found in India?
4. Buddhism and Jainism had contributed in the architecture developemnt of India -
discuss.
5. How would you view the construction of monuments during the regime of Delhi
Sultanate?
6.The architecture during Mughal period was a synthesis of the Indian, Persian, Mongol
and Mughal style. Elaborate.
7.Narrate the story of Delhi in your own words.
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8 and Architecture .Find out the truth about the saying Dilli hai dil walon ki. Write an essay on it. You
can search on the internet or get books from a library.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
13.1
1.The emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continent influenced
the growth and shape of Indian culture.
2.The Public bath at the site of Mohenjodaro is an evidence of their engineering skills.
3.Kushinagar
4.Lumbini, Sarnath, Bodhi Tree, Kushinagar
5.During Gupta period
6.Religious architectural remains related to Lord Buddha
7.At Lothal, Gujarat
13.2
1.A large palace curved out of wood.
2.Sanchi stupas and Sarnath stupas
3.On Monolithic stone pillars
4.Gandhara Art
Mathura School
Amaravati School
5.In Orissa
6.The Rashtrakutas
7.The Pallavas
8.A temple architecture style having vimana or shikara, high walls and the gateway topped
by gopuram.
9.Brihadeshwara Temple
10.Temples constructed with shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the
mandap (Pillared Halls)
11.Narshimha Deva I
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and Architecture 12.Dilwara Temple
13.3
1.Domes, arches, minarets
2.Quwwatiful Islam mosque at Delhi
Qutab Minar - At Delhi
Tomb of Mohammad Tuglaq
Tomb of Firoz Tuglaq
Tomb of Ibrahim Lodhi - At Delhi
Sher Shah Tomb at Sasaram
3.Gol Gumbaz
4.Decorative design in inlay work in building constructed during mughal period.
5.Buland Darwaja
13.4
1.Basilica Bom Jesus and the church of Saint Francis.
2.Lutyens
3.Greek and Roman architectural styles.
4.It houses museum full of colonial artefacts.
5.French architect Corbusier.
6.An Austrian architect Stein
7.(i) Raj Rewal(ii) Charles Correa
13.5
1.Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangam, Surkoda Rajgir, Varanasi, Ayodhya,
Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilavastu, Kaushambi or any other/s not mentioned
in this lesson.
2.Any 5 out of Panaji, Bombay, Machilipatnam, Nagapattnam, Madras, Calcutta or any
other/s not mentioned in this lesson.
3.Any 5 out of Mussoorie, Simla, Nainital, Darjeeling, Shillong, Nilgiri, Kodaikanal or
any other/s not mentioned in this lesson.
4.Civilian Officers
5.Army Officers
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13.6 and Architecture
1.The High Court Building, The Ice House, Church of St. John, General Post Office or
any other/s not mentioned in this lesson.
2.Any 4 out of Howrah Bridge, Marble Palace, Writers Building, Fort William, Eden
Gardens, Victoria Memorial Hall or any other/s not mentioned in this lesson.
3.Any 4 out of Secretariat, Council Hall, Elphinstone College, Victoria Terminus (modern
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus), Gateway of India or any other/s not mentioned in this
lesson.
13.7
1.
2.Kutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya, Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, Amir
Khusro, or any other/s not mentioned in this lesson.
S. No. Name of the City Name of king who built it
1. Indraprastha Yudhishthira
2. Lal Kot Anang Pal Tomar 4. Mehrauli Prithvi Raj Chauhan
5. Siri Alauddin Khilji
6. Jahanpanah Mohammed Bin Tughlaq 7. Tughlaqabad Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
8. Firozabad Firoz Shah Tughlaq
9. Dinpanah Humayun
10. Shahjahanabad Shah Jehan
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14
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN INDIA
Like people in any other part of the world Indians too, have a rich legacy of scientific
ideas. A desire to now the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and
observation have always generated scientific temper. This has led to the assumption
that truth lay in the real world with all its diversity and complexity. It has been the
responsibility of scientists to unravel the mystery behind the truth and utilise available
resources for the progress of humanity. 1n the following pages you will be reading about
this continuous search for knowledge and truth leading to discoveries and inventions and
their application in day-to-day life in India.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
identify the development of science in India;
recognise the various scientific fields in which Indians have made their
contributions;
examine the various forces and factors that help in developing science during
any period; and
draw linkages between modern Indian science and its rich scientific heritage.
14.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Mathematics has been called by the general name of Ganita which includes Arithmetic’s,
Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Arithmetic is called by several names such
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as Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry
is called Rekha Ganita (line works) and Algebra, Bija Ganita (seed analysis), Astronomy
and Astrology are included in the term Jyotisa.
India has a rich heritage of science and technology. The dependence on nature could be
overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in
close proximity. Let us find out about the developments in the different branches of science
in the ancient period.
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and
closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy
but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a
concise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions,
methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the
sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was
that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on
the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it
caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process
where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by
Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy
present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific
outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were
studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology
which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations.
Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of
measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate
stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras.
Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle,
obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where
the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were
the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals
were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals.
Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa
Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is
considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers.
Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the
origin of Trignometry.
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The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth
century AD is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the
moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and
later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited
interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became
the cornerstones for further research and progress.
Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever,
cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases
mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s
body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as
centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita
by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be
understood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through
translations in various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita.
Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta
was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the
healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with
this he also mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. The
surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips).
Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were
used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita
and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine
in the later centuries. However, surgery suffered in the early medieval time since the act of
disecting with a razor became the work of a barber.
Metallurgy
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations
point towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting
grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of
alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex
is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were
produced and utilised for making medicines. This technology was also used for other
crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes
reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date.
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A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (Near
Bhagalpur)
Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography. Though
the people were clear about their own physical geography, that of China and also the
Western countries, they were unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with
other countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages
and navigation was not a familiar foray for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat
has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the
early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, a
vast mass of geographical information was accumulated. They were finally compiled as
parts of Puranas. In many cases separate sthala purana was also compiled.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1
1.What is the importance of developing science?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What was the contribution of Aryabhatta in Astronomy?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who was Apastamba? What was his contribution to Mathematics?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What were the three contributions in the field of mathematics of Ancient India?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Which book mentions plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes in Ancient India?
_______________________________________________________________
6.How many surgical instruments were mentioned in Sushrutsamhita?
_______________________________________________________________
7. Name the two books which became predecessors of the development of Indian
Medicine?
_______________________________________________________________
8.How many medicinal plants were the surgeons of ancient India familiar with?
_______________________________________________________________
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14.2 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
During the medieval period (eleventh to eighteenth century) science and technology in
India developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier
traditions and the other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and
European influence. The maktabs and madrasas came into existence that followed a set
curricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh
Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah, specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the
madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were
invited to teach in these madrasas.
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to
supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal household and government departments.
The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for
technical and vocational training to young men. The karkhanas trained and turned out
artisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent
karkhanas (workshops).
Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important
subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public
administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary education.
Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet
science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind
of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to
science in other countries.
Biology
Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general,
though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval
rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons.
Animals, both domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed special
interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in
his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of weeding and
hybridisation. He described about thirty-six species of animals.
His court artists, specially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraiture of animals,
some of which are still preserved in several museums and private collections.
As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their
floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
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Mathematics
Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negative numbers
as debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas knew the
utility of mathematics for practical trade.
In the early medieval period the two outstanding works in mathematics were Ganitasara
by Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division,
numbers, cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced
Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, containing a number of illustrations. In 1587,
Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faidi. Bija Ganita was translated by Ataullah
Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign. Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled
Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered the introduction
of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system. Bahauddin-
Amuli, Nasiruddin Tusi, Arraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this field.
Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognised as an
authority.
Chemistry
Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on
palm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern
regions of the country. Use of paper began during the Medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot,
Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known
centres of paper production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory,
producing a special type of paper that had a gold surface. The paper making technique
was more or less the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp
from different raw materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian
craftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were
aware of the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in
different ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal types of fireworks included
those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various
colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i--Baburi gives an account of the casting of
cannons. The melted metal was made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down.
Besides explosives, other items were also produced. Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the
‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of roses was a popular perfume,
the discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan. Mention may also be made
here of the glazed tiles and pottery during the period.
Astronomy
In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical
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notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. Firoz
Shah Tughaq established observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim
Hussain Gilani and Syed Muhammad Kazimi set up an observatory in Daulatabad. Both
lunar and solar calendars were in use.
Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument
called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers
and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta.
Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic
knowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories
in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Pulse and
urine examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The Sarangdhara Samhita
recommends use of opium for medicines. The rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with
a host of mineral medicines including metallic preparations. The Tuhfat-ul-Muminin was
a Persian treatise written by Muhammad Munin in seventeenth century which discusses
the opinions of physicians.
The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in India in the medieval
period. Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the
Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system
came to India along with the Muslims around the eleventh century and soon found a
congenial environment for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majinye
Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah
Tughlaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb,
is based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati-Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad,
dedicated to Darashikoh deals with Greek medicine.
Agriculture
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as
that in early and early ancient India. Some important changes, however, were brought
about by the foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural
plants. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton,
sugarcane and indigo. The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality
and Kashmir maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from
Tamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts from Kerala were becoming increasingly
popular. Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the
important new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the production of opium from
the poppy plants. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success. The
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systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of the sixteenth
century.
In the field of irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket made of leather) and
dhenkli, were used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen, which continued to be the
means of irrigation. Persian wheel was used in and around Agra region. In the medieval
period, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by the State which brought about a
system of land measurement and land classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the
tillers.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.2
1.What were the functions of Karkharnas in Medieval India?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who compiled Mrga-Paksi-Sastra in the 13th Century?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Who was the founder director of the Maragha Observatory?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who got Lilavati translated into Persian?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Which Mughal king introduced Mathematics as a subject of study?
_______________________________________________________________
6.How was literature preserved before the invention of paper?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Which book gives an account of the casting of cannons in Medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
8.Name the perfume discovered by the mother of Nur Jehan?
_______________________________________________________________
9.What does Ain-i-Akbari speak about?
_______________________________________________________________
10. How many observatories were set up by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur?
Where were these observatories located?
_______________________________________________________________
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11.Who developed Yantraja?
_______________________________________________________________
12.What was Yantraja?
_______________________________________________________________
13.Which Unani medicine system came to India alongwith Mughals in medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
14.What was the Rasachikitsa deal with?
_______________________________________________________________
15.Which new plants arrived in India in the 16th and 17th centuries?
_______________________________________________________________
14.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN INDIA
Before considering the progress of science and technology in India since independence, it
is necessary to understand what we mean by the terms science and technology. Science
can be defined as any systematic activity that seeks to gain knowledge about the physical
world. Technology is that activity which seeks to put this knowledge to productive use. As
these definitions show, science and technology are clearly interlinked in the present day
world.
In India the role of science and technology in national development has been duly recognised
by the government. The Second Five Year Plan emphasised that “the most important
single factor in promoting economic development is the community’s readiness to apply
modem science and technology”. In 1971, the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) was set up to promote new areas of science and technology. Similarly State Councils
of Science and Technology have also been established at the state levels. As part of the
national policy, the government is promoting various research and development schemes
to encourage scientific activities. In this section, we will take up some of the main areas in
which scientific knowledge and modem technology have made an impact.
Agriculture
It is mainly because of the application of modern science and technology in agriculture that
India is able to produce 135 million tonnes of foodgrains today as compared to 50 million
tonnes thirty years ago. These applications range from the cultivation of hybrid seeds to
energy management in agriculture and post-harvest technology. In these efforts the Indian
Council for Agricultural Research has played a leading role. Through seventy three
agricultural, thirty two veterinary, eight agricultural engineering and one dairy colleges, the
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ICAR has been playing a key role in the scientific education of the farmers as well as
others engaged in different sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry.
The challenges that lie ahead in agriculture are in the areas of increasing the yields of rice,
pulses, oilseeds and many cash crops; initiating plantations and promoting social forestry;
and shifting from agriculture based on chemical fertilizers to organic fertilizers.
Industry
It is in the field of industry that modern science and technology made its earliest and most
revolutionary impact. In India the government has consistently tried to use modern science
and technology for industrial development. Two government organisations, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Defence Research and Development
Orgnisation (DRDO) cover between them a wide range of science and technology research
for civil and defence purposes. A large number of items have emerged from CSIR laboratories
for industrial production, such as, indigenous agricultural machinery, chemicals, drugs and
pesticides, products in the areas of food technology, furnished leather goods, glass and
ceramics, colour television, and receiver sets. The research carried out in the field of coal,
such as, upgrading of coal and extraction of electricity from coal has been effectively
utilized. In the area of defence, India’s own technological capability has increased
considerably. The most recent example of such capability is the advanced research that is
now being done to produce missiles in India. Some missiles have already been tested for
further development.
Nuclear Energy
India’s aim is to utilise nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. During the last sixty three
years, since the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, India has made
significant progress in the field of nuclear technology. In 1957, the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC) was established at Trombay. It is the largest single scientific establishment
in the country. Nuclear power stations have already been established at Tarapur
(Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP) and Kakrapar
(Gujarat). The adoption of modern technology has led to the increase in indigenous content
of nuclear power reactors constructed in India. As a result, India is today one of the few
countries in the world which can indigenously design, construct and operate nuclear reactors
without relying on foreign help. Besides nuclear sciences, research and development work
in fields such as electronics, medicine, biology, agriculture, metallurgy is also being done at
some nuclear centres.
Space Technology
The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance in the use of
space technology for national development. Over the years, the space programme has
established itself with a succession of achievements. They include the launching of the first
Indian space satellite Aryabhatta in 1975 and then Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II from the
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Soviet Union, the Rohini satellite on India’s own SLV-3 rocket and the Apple satellite on
the European Arianne rocket. A far reaching experiment in education through satellite,
SITE, was conducted in India in 1975. Subsequently, INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983,
provided radio, television, telecommunication and meteorological services. A perspective
of major space mission planned for the decade 1985-95 aims at using space technology
for nationwide application in communication, survey and management of natural resources
and meteorology.
Electronics
Since independence, India has acquired the capability to produce a wide variety of electronic
goods such as radio and television sets, communication systems, broadcasting equipments,
radars, nuclear reactors, power control systems and underwater systems. A very large
part of the components required for these are produced indigenously. The production of
electronic goods has been growing at the rate of 18 per cent per annum over the past
decade. Today we are even exporting electronic goods to different parts of the world.
Further, computers have been introduced to improve efficiency and enhance production.
Major facilities, recently set up, include the Semi Conductor Limited (Chandigarh), National
Computer Centre (Bombay), National Information Centre (New Delhi) and a number of
regional computer centres.
Medical and Health Sciences
In the field of medicine there have been many achievements. Major advances have been
made in preventing and treating various diseases. Small pox has been eradicated. Treatment
of diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, filaria, goitre, and cancer has been considerably
improved. Research is being carried out to control communicable diseases. Research
based activities have already increased life expectancy appreciably and death rate has
declined, while schemes such as the immunisation programme have reduced infant mortality
considerably. Improved medical facilities in the form of government-run hospitals and
dispensaries, research councils, and primary health centres for rural areas are also being
provided.
Ocean Development
India has many interests in the field of ocean development, such as, exploration of offshore
oil, fishery resources to increase food supplies, etc. A department of Ocean Development
was established in 1981, under the charge of the Prime Minister, to coordinate and direct
India’s activities in the field of ocean research. This department has two vessels ORV
Sagar Kanya and FORV Sagar Sampada, which have advanced facilities for working in
the field of physical, chemical, biological, geological and geophysical oceanography and
meteorology. India’s achievements during the past few years include sea-bed mining using
the research ship Gaveshna and setting up of research station named Dakshin Gangotri on
the Antartica
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Other Areas
Apart from the major areas mentioned above, India has made much progress in several
other fields as well. These include the activities of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission in
oil exploration and refining and of the National Committee Environment Planning in
environment protection and production of solar energy. A Central Ganga Aurthority has
been set up to check pollution in the river Ganga by using sewage treatment plants.
Evaluation of Progress of Science and Technology
It is clear that progress of science and technology in India has been quite significant. Many
new methods, products and better quality goods have been developed in the country.
India has made rapid progress in the frontier areas of science and technology like space
research and atomic energy. At present the country has a strong base in modem technology.
It also has the third largest scientific and technical manpower in the world.
At the same time there have been some serious shortcomings in this progress. For instance
in basic products like textiles and steel, India has been importing foreign technologies.
Continuous import of foreign technology shows lack of ability to create new technology to
suit our needs and this creates dependence on other countries. Excessive reliance on
foreign technology is also visible in the important areas of defence, where the latest weapons
are often imported from other countries. Apart from this weakness in creating new technology,
India has also lagged behind in developing technology to meet the needs of the poor. In the
area of housing for instance, India is yet to develop, low-cost technology to meet the
needs of the poor who do not have houses. Advances in the fields of nuclear and space
research are praiseworthy but these have not helped the poor people so far. We may say
that the progress of modem science and technology have not, as yet, benefited the people
of India equally.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3
1.What is science?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Define technology?
_______________________________________________________________
3.When was Department of Science and Technology set up by the Govt. of India?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Name the two government organisations doing research for civil and defence purposes
in Science & Technology.
_______________________________________________________________
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5.Give the name of five nuclear power stations of India.
_______________________________________________________________
6.When and where was Bhabha Atomic Research Centre established?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Which was the first Indian space satellite?
_______________________________________________________________
8.What were the functions of INSAT- 1B satellite?
_______________________________________________________________
9.How is immunisation programme beneficial?
_______________________________________________________________
10.Where is Dakshin Gangotri located?
_______________________________________________________________
11.What is the area of activity of the Department of Oceanography?
_______________________________________________________________
12.Which authority is working to check pollution in the river Ganga?
_______________________________________________________________
13.Name the national authority looking for oil exploration and refining natural gases?
_______________________________________________________________
14.What is the main drawback in importing foreign technology?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Ancient Indians made considerable scientific progress in the fields of science and
technology.
Their contribution in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, chemistry have
made an impact on modem scientists.
During the medieval period Indians came in contact with Arabic scientific knowledge.
Turkish rulers and Mughals introduced gunpowder.
Astronomical observatories were set up at Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura, Jaipur and Delhi.
In modem India scientific development has been duly recognised by the government
and is being implemented through the Five Year Plan.
Nuclear energy is being used for peaceful purposes as well.
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The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance and national
development.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Discuss the metallurgy capabilities of the people of the Ancient India?
2.Describe the two inventions in the field of chemistry during medieval period?
3.Describe the progress made by India in the field of medicine and health services?
4.State the applications of Science and Technology in the field of agriculture and its
allied products?
5.How did rich scientific heritage acts as an asset in the modern Indian science progress?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
14.1
1.Developing science reduces our dependence on nature.
2.He deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it s scientific outlook.
3.Apastamba was a second century BC mathematician. He introduced practical geometry
involving acute, obtuse, right angles.
4.(a) Notation system
(b) Decimal system
(c) Use of zero
5.Charaksamhita
6.121 surgical instruments
7.Charaksamhita and Sushrutsamhita
8.760 plants.
14.2
1.Besides manufacturing of goods, they also provided technical and vocational training
to young men.
2.Hamsa Deva
3.Nasiruddin
4.Faizi
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5.Akbar
6.It was preserved on palm leaves in South India. In Kashmir, literature was preserved
on birch-bark (bhoj patra)
7.Tuzuk-i-Baburi
8.The attar of roses
9.About regulations of the perfume office of Akbar.
10.5 Delhi, Ujjain, Varansi, Mathura, Jaipur
11.Mahendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah
12.An astronomical instrument
13.The Unani Tibb
14.It dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines including metallic preparations.
15.Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple.
14.3
1.It can be defined as any systematic activity that seeks to gain knowledge about the
physical world.
2.Activity which seeks to put the knowledge of science into productive use.
3. 1971
4.CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DRDO Defence Research and Development Organisation
5.Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP),
Kakrapar (Gujarat)
6.In 1971, at Trombay
7.Aryabhatta
8.It provided radio, television, telecommunication and Meteorological services.
9.It reduces infant mortality
10.On the Antarica
11.It is working in the field of physical, chemical, biological and geophysical oceanography
and meterology.
12.Central Ganga Authority
13.Oil and Natural Gas Commission
14.It shows lack of our ability to create new technology.
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15
SCIENTISTS OF ANCIENT INDIA
In the previous lesson, you have read about the relationship between science and
technology. In this lesson, you will read about the contributions made by ancient Indians
in the field of Mathematics and Science, including Medical Science, Ayurveda, Yoga,
Astronomy, Astrology, etc. You will be surprised to know that a lot of scientific knowledge
was evolved in ancient India, so many years ago.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
list the contributions of India to the world in the field of Mathematics and Science.
discuss the contributions made to knowledge by ancient Indian scientists like
Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Brahmgupta, Bhaskaracharya, Kanad, Varahamihira,
Nagarjuna, Susruta, Charak, Patanjali
15.1 MATHEMATICS & ASTRONOMY
Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India. Ancient
Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various branches
of Science. In this section, we will read about the developments in Mathematics and the
scholars who contributed to it. You will be surprised to know that many theories of modern
day mathematics were actually known to ancient Indians. However, since ancient Indian
mathematicians were not as good in documentation and dissemination as their counterparts
in the modern western world, their contributions did not find the place they deserved.
Moreover, the western world ruled over most of the world for a long time, which empowered
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them to claim superiority in every way, including in the field of knowledge. Let us now take
a look at some of these contributions of ancient Indian mathematicians.
15.1.1 Baudhayan
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which
were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by him.
As you know, pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is
known as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which
was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
15.1.2 Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He
was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which
is a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.
In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets.
In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics
such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining
two sections are on astronomy.
Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.
Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and
the moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
As we have seen, the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy. Evidently,
Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the field of science, too, particularly Astronomy.
In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra.
Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta
studied. In fact science of astronomy was highly advanced and our ancestors were proud
of it. The aim behind the development of the science of astronomy was the need to have
accurate calendars, a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing
and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation of
time and casting of horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge of astronomy, particularly
knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of great importance in trade, because of the
requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts during night time.
Disregarding the popular view that our planet earth is ‘Achala’ (immovable), Aryabhatta
stated his theory that ‘earth is round and rotates on its own axis’ He explained that the
appearance of the sun moving from east to west is false by giving examples. One such
example was: When a person travels in a boat, the trees on the shore appear to move in
the opposite direction. He also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shined by
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reflected sunlight. He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse clarifying
that the eclipse were not because of Rahhu and/or Ketu or some other rakshasa (demon,).
Do you realize now, why the first satellite sent into orbit by India has been named after
Aryabhatta?
15.1.3 Brahmgupta
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods
of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He
introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm
Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
15.1.4 Bhaskaracharya
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka.
He is famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati
(Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of
planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic
equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians,
who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor, translated
Lilavati and made this great work known to the world.
15.1.5 Mahaviracharya
There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain literature (500 B.C -100 B.C).
Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions,
algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very interesting manner.
Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first
textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least common
Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by him. Thus, long before John
Napier introduced it to the world, it was already known to Indians.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.1
1.Mention two contributions of Baudhayan in the field of Mathematics.
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who discovered zero?
_______________________________________________________________
3. What is the importance of Brahm Sputa Siddantika?
_______________________________________________________________
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4.Match the following works with their authors:
Name of the Work Name of the Author
1.Sulva Sutra1.Aryabhatta
2.Aryabhattiya 2.Mahaviracharya
3.Brahm Sputa Siddantika3. Baudhayan
4.Siddanta Shiromani4. Brahmgupta
5.Ganit Sara Sangraha 5. Bhaskaracharya
15.2 SCIENCE
As in Mathematics, ancient Indians contributed to the knowledge in Science, too. Let us
now learn about the contributions of some scientists of ancient India.
15.2.1 Kanad
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian
philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a
child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a
match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of
kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be
further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. This is, of course, as you
may be knowing, what the modern atomic theory also says.
15.2.2 Varahamihira
Varahamihira was another well known scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in
the Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology
and ecology. He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the
indicators of the presence of underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty
plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very important information
regarding termites (Deemak or insects that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the
surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet. Another theory,
which has attracted the world of science is the earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira
in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to signs of
earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea
activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.
Another field where Varahamihira’s contribution is worth mentioning is Jyotish or Astrology.
Astrology was given a very high place in ancient India and it has continued even today.
Jyotish, which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It was presented scientifically
in a systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. You have already seen that Aryabhatta
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devoted two out of the four sections of his work Aryabhattiyam to astronomy, which is the
basis for Astrology. Astrology is the science of predicting the future. Varahamihira was one
of the nine gems, who were scholars, in the court of Vikramaditya. Varahamihira’s
predictions were so accurate that king Vikramaditya gave him the title of ‘Varaha’.
15.2.3 Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform
base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not
successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date,
this technology is used in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has
discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.2
1.Who was Kanad? How did he get his name?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Who wrote Brhat Samhita?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What was Nagarjuna trying to achieve in life?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What is the subject matter of Nagarjuna’s treatise Rasaratnakara?
_______________________________________________________________
15.3 MEDICAL SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA (AYURVEDA
& YOGA)
As you have read, scientific knowledge was in a highly advanced stage in ancient India. In
keeping with the times, Medical Science was also highly developed. Ayurveda is the
indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India. The word Ayurveda
literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. This ancient Indian system
of medicine not only helps in treatment of diseases but also in finding the causes and
symptoms of diseases. It is a guide for the healthy as well as the sick. It defines health as an
equilibrium in three doshas, and diseases as disturbance in these three doshas. While
treating a disease with the help of herbal medicines, it aims at removing the cause of
disease by striking at the roots. The main aim of ayurveda has been health and longevity. It
is the oldest medical system of our planet. A treatise on Ayurveda, Atreya Samhita, is the
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oldest medical book of the world. Charak is called the father of ayurvedic medicine and
Susruta the father of surgery. Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were
noted ayurvedic practitioners. Do you know that Ayurveda has lately become very popular
in the western world? This is because of its many advantages over the modern system of
medicine called Allopathy, which is of western origin.
15.3.1 Susruta
Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highest division
of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He studied human anatomy with the help of a
dead body. In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of
twenty-six kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over
760 plants are described. All parts, roots, bark, juice, resin, flowers etc. were used.
Cinnamon, sesame, peppers, cardamom, ginger are household remedies even today.
In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the purpose
of its detailed study has also been described. The dead body of an old man or a person
who died of a severe disease was generally not considered for studies. The body needed
to be perfectly cleaned and then preserved in the bark of a tree. It was then kept in a cage
and hidden carefully in a spot in the river. There the current of the river softened it. After
seven days it was removed from the river. It was then cleaned with a brush made of grass
roots, hair and bamboo. When this was done, every inner or outer part of the body could
be seen clearly.
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose and/or ears was
a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In
Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.
Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern
surgeons while doing plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101
instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus
out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.
Does it not sound interesting and wonderful?
15.3.2 Charak
Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj
Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable
book on medicine. It has the description of a large number of diseases and gives methods
of identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. He was the first to talk
about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and so medical scienc.
In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather
than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics. Don’t you
find it fascinating that thousands of years back, medical science was at such an advanced
stage in India.
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15.3.3 Yoga & Patanjali
The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for
healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived
from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after
detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the
Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s
consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets in to motion the force that
purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as
mental. Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and
restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization
and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spritiual balance.
Yoga was passed on by word of mouth from one sage to another. The credit of systematically
presenting this great science goes to Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Aum is
spoken of as the symbol of God. He refers to Aum as a cosmic sound, continuously
flowing through the ether, fully known only to the illuminated. Besides Yoga Sutras, Patanjali
also wrote a work on medicine and worked on Panini’s grammar known as Mahabhasaya.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.3
1.What is Ayurveda?
_______________________________________________________________
2.The oldest book on medicine is _______________.
3. Susruta Samhita is a book on ____________________.
4. The father of ancient Indian Medical Science is _______________________. He
wrote the book called____________________________.
5.What does Yoga mean?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India.
Some famous ancient Indian Mathematicians were Baudhayan, Aryabhatta,
Brahmgupta, Bhaskaracharya, Mahaviracharya.
Some famous scientists were Kanad, Varahamihira, Nagarjuna.
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Medical Science was also highly developed in ancient India.
Ayurveda is the indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India.
The word Ayurveda literally means the science of good health and longevity of life.
Charak is called the father of ayurvedic medicine and Susruta the father of surgery in
ancient India.
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts).
Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine.
The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda
for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level.
Patanjali was the first scholar to present this great science systematically in his Yoga
Sutras.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.What are the theories given by Aryabhatta in the field of astronomical science?
2.What does Bhaskaracharya’s Siddanta Shiromani deal with?
3.Name the first text book in Arithmetic. Who wrote it? Mention some topics it deals
with.
4.Discuss Varahamihira’s contributions to scientific knowledge.
5.What was Nagarjuna’s contribution to making of imitation jewellery?
6.Write an essay on Ancient Indian Medical Science.
7.Explain the following:
a)Method of selecting and preserving dead body in Susruta Samhita
b) Hathayoga and Rajayoga.
c)Tri-Dosa theory of Charak.
d)Concept of ‘Chitta’ in relation to Yoga.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
15.1
1. i) First mathematician to calculate the value of pi;
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ii) Derivation of the Theorem that is now called Pythagoras Theorem.
2.Aryabhatta
3.Arabs came to know our mathematical system through this book.
Name of the Work Name of the Author
Sulva Sutra Baudhayan
Aryabhattiya Aryabhatta
Brahm Sputa Siddantika Brahmgupta
Siddanta Shiromani Bhaskaracharya
Ganit Sara Sangraha Mahaviracharya
15.2
1.A sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika school; even as a child, he was interested in
very minute particles called “kana”, so he was named Kanad.
2.Varahamihira
3.to transform base elements into gold
4.He made an element with gold-like shine; devised methods for the extraction of metals
like gold, silver, tin and copper.
15.3
1.indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India; the science of
good health and longevity of life.
2. Atreya Samhita
3.Surgery
4. Charak; Charak Samhita
5.‘yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses’
ACTIVITIES
1.Have you heard of Vedic Mathematics? It is becoming popular even at school level
now-a-days. Find out about it and write an essay on it.
2. Find out about the differences between Ayurveda and Allopathy. Write a report,
bringing out reasons for the increasing popularity of Ayurveda, even in western countries.
Yoga is another system of healing that has become very popular. Read more about it.
Find out about the eight stages in Yoga (Ashtang Marg) and write a report.
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16
SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS OF
MEDIEVAL INDIA
You have read about Science and scientist in India during the Ancient Period. During
the medieval period, Science and Technology in India developed two facets: one
concerned with the already chartered course of earlier traditions and other with
the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European impact. We will
read in some detail about these developments in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
discuss the educational practices that emerged during the medieval period;
trace the developments in science & technology in Medieval India; and
list some well known scholars in the field of science & technology and their
works during this period.
16.1 SCIENCES IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD
As you know, the medieval period marks the coming of Muslims in India. By this time, the
traditional indigenous classical learning had already received a setback. The pattern of
education as prevalent in Arab countries was gradually adopted during this period. As a
result, Maktabs and Madrasas came into existence. These institutions used to receive
royal patronage. A chain of madrasas, opened at several places, followed a set curriculum.
The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah, who were specialists in rational
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science, headed the madrasas at Sambal and Agra. Apart from the talent available locally
in the country, learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were also invited to take
charge of education in madrasas.
Do you know that the Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools.
Some important subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy,
Public Administration and Agriculture were included in the courses of studies for primary
education. Though special efforts were made by the ruler to carry out reforms in education,
yet sciences did not make much headway. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis
between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent medieval approach to
science in other countries. Let us now see what developments took place in various fields
during this period.
Large workshops called karkhanas were maintained to supply provision, stores and
equipments to royal household and government departments. The karkhanas not only
worked as manufacturing agencies, but also served as centres for technical and vocational
training to young people. The karkhanas trained and turned out artisans and craftspersons
in different branches, who later on set up their own independent karkhanas.
16.1.1 Mathematics
Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this period. Narayana
Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works in Mathematics –
Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa. Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wrote Lilavati
Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika , and Lilavati Vyakhya. These were famous treatises
which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent and cotangent. Nilakantha
Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which also contains rules of trigonometrical
functions.
Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini - a commentary on lilavati - containing a
number of illustrations. Krishna of the Valhalla family brought out Navankura on the
Bijaganit of Bhaskara-II and elaboration of the rules of indeterminate equations of the first
and second orders. Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of
Persian technical terms. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit.
Akbar ordered to make Mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the education
system . Naisiru’d –din-at –tusi, was another scholar of Mathematics.
16.1.2 Biology
Similarly, there were advancements in the field of Biology. Hamsadeva compiled a work in
the field of Biology entitled Mrga-paksi-sastra in the thirteenth century. This gives a general,
though not always scientific, account of some animals and birds of hunting. The Muslim
kings, who were warriors and hunters, maintained a fleet of animals such as horses, dogs,
cheetahs and falcons for hunting. Animals, both domesticated as well as wild, have been
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described. Both Babur and Akbar, in spite of being busy in their political preoccupations
and war, found time to study the work. Akbar had a special interest in producing good
breeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his work - Tuzuk-i-
jahangiri - recorded his observations and experiments on breeding and hybridization. .
He described about 36 species of animals. His court artists, specially, Mansur, produced
elegant and accurate portraitures of animals. Some of these are still preserved in several
museums and private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was also interested in the study
of plants. His court artists have drawn around 57 plants in their floral portraitures.
16.1.3 Chemistry
Do you know that in the medieval period, use of paper had begun? An important application
of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna,
Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore became well known centres of paper
production. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country
differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery,
another application of Chemistry. The Indian craftspersons learnt the technique in evolved
suitable explosive composition. The work Sukraniti attributed to Sukracarya contains a
description of how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal in
different ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal type of fire works included
those which pierce through air, produce sparks of fire, blaze with various colours and end
with explosion. The work Ain –I-akbari speaks of the regulation of the Perfume office of
Akbar. The attar (perfume) of roses was a popular perfume, which is supposed to have
been discovered by Nurjehan
INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.1
1.What subjects were taught in primary schools in the medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
2.The subject __________________ was ordered by Akbar to be a compulsory subject
of study at primary stage.
3.What were the 2 functions of ‘Karkhanas’?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Match the following scholars with their works:
Name of Scholar Name of Work
1.Narayana Pandit1. Buddhivilasini
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2.Gangadhara2. Mrga-paksi-sastra
3.Ganesa Daivanja3. Ganitakaumudi
4.Hamsadeva4. Lilavati Vyakhya
5.Jahangir5.Tajik
6.Sukracarya6.Tuzuk-i-jahangiri
7.Nilakantha Jyotirvida7. Sukraniti
Name of Scholar Name of Work
Narayana Pandit
Gangadhara
Ganesa Daivajna
Hamsadeva
Jahangir
Sukracarya
Nilakantha Jyotirvida
5.Name 4 places in India during the medieval period where paper was manufactured.
_______________________________________________________________
16.1.4 Astronomy
Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period. In astronomy, a number of
commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared.
Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an astronomical,
instrument ‘Yantraja’. Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famous
families of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced
commentary of Aryabhatiyaa. Kamalakar studied the Islamic astronomical ideas. He was
an authority on Islamic knowledge. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur was a patron of
Astronomy. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varansasi,
Mathura and Jaipur.
16.1.5 Medicine
The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as it did in the ancient
period because of lack of royal patronage. However, some important treatises on Ayurveda
like the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, the Yagaratbajara
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and the Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra were compiled. The Sarangdhara Samhita,
written in the thirteenth century, includes use of opium in its material medica and urine
examination for diagnostic purpose. The drugs mentioned include metallic preparation of
the rasachikitsa system and even imported drugs.
The Rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines, both mercurial
and non-mercurial. The Siddha system mostly prevalent in Tamil Nadu was attributed to
the reputed Siddhas, who were supposed to have evolved many life-prolonging
compositions, rich in mineral medicines.
The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in India during the medieval period. Ali-bin-
Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the Indian medical
knowledge in the book, Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system came to India
along with the Muslims by about the eleventh century and soon found patronage for its
growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majiny-e-Diyae, incorporating the
Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah Tughalaq wrote a book,
Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic
sources. The Musalajati-Darshikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh,
deals with Greek medicine and contains, at the end, almost the whole of Ayurvedic material
medica.
16.1.6 Agriculture
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as
that in early India. Some important changes occurred in the introduction of new crops,
trees as well as horticultural plants by foreign traders. The principal crops were wheat,
rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugar-cane and indigo. The Western Ghats
continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir maintained its tradition for
saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from Tamil Nadu, cardamom, sandalwood and
coconut from Kerala, were becoming increasingly popular. Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava,
custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the important plants which were introduced to
India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was during this period that the
production of opium from poppy plants began in Malwa and Bihar regions. Improved
horticultural methods were adopted with great success. The systematic mango-grafting
was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of sixteenth century. Imperial Mughal
Gardens were suitable areas where extensive cultivation of fruit trees came up.
For irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahat, charas and dhenkli charas (a sort of a bucket
made of leather used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen) were used. Persian wheel
was used in the Agra region. In the medieval period, agriculture was placed on a solid
foundation by the State by introducing a system of land measurement and land classification,
beneficial both to the rulers as well as the tillers.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.2
1.Name the cities where astronomical observatories were set up by Maharaja Sawai Jai
Singh-II of Jaipur.
_______________________________________________________________
2.Name 2 treatises of Ayurveda written during the medieval period.
_______________________________________________________________
3. What is Firdausu-Hikmat?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Which book brings the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge together?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Name 4 crops that were started to be grown in India during the medieval period.
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
There was a considerable change in the education system. The Arabic system was
introduced in a big way. Madrasas and Maktabs were established all over. The rulers
tried to introduce reforms.
Several works were written in the fields of Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology, Astronomy
and Medicine.
Most of the scientific works in this period were commentaries or expositions of the
earlier treatises.
Several important scientific works in astronomy, medicine and other sciences were
rendered from Sanskrit to Persian/Arabic and from Persian/Arabic to Sanskrit.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Describe the education system that developed during the medieval period.
2.Discuss the developments in the field of Medicine during the medieval period.
3.How was irrigation done during this period.
4.Write an essay on “Science and Scientists during the medieval period.
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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
16.1
1.Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration
and Agriculture
2.Mathematics
3.i) Manufacturing agencies
ii) centres for technical and vocational training to young people
4.Name of Scholar Name of Work
Narayana Pandit Ganitakaumudi
Gangadhara Lilavati Vyakhya
Ganesa Daivajna Buddhivilasini
Hamsadeva Mrga-paksi-sastra
Jahangir Tuzuk-i-jahangiri
Sukracarya Sukraniti
Nilakantha Jyotirvida Tajik
5. Any 4 out of Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad,
Aurangabad and Mysore.
16.2
1.Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
2.Any 2 out of Sarangdhara Samhita, Chikitsasamgraha, Yagaratbajara and Bhavaprakas.
3.A book written by Ali-bin-Rabban summarizing the whole system of Greek medicine
as well as the Indian medical knowledge.
4.Majiny-e-Diyae
5.Any 4 out of Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew pineapple.
ACTIVITIES
1. Try to visit any one of the observatories set up by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of
Jaipur. Write a report bringing out the utility of an observatory and describing the
instruments available.
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2.Try to visit a factory that produces paper. Write a report on the process of production.
3.You have learnt about the two systems of medicine – Ayurvedic that was developed
during the ancient period and the Unani Tibb system that was introduced to India by
the Muslims during the medieval period. Do you know that the doctors whom you
generally consult when you are ill follow the Allopathic system, which was introduced
by the Britishers during the Modern period. Find out the basic principles of these three
systems and how they differ. For this you may do any one or more of the following for
getting information:
Discuss with your teacher
Get books from the library on this and read
Search the internet
Meet a doctor and discuss
Write a report bringing out the differences in these systems, stating the basic principles
of each.
4.Choose any two of the crops that were introduced to India during the medieval period
and find out their origin and how they came to India. Write their stories.
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17
SCIENTISTS OF MODERN INDIA
The development of scientific thought in modern India can be attributed to the scientists
of this period. Towards the second half of the nineteenth century, Sir C.V. Raman
brought about an unprecedented change in Indian scientific thought, Dr. Homi J.
Bhabha, known as the father of our Nuclear Physics, predicted the future of Indian science.
Dr. J.C. Bose, in the field of plant physiology, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, in the field of atomic
energy and industrialization and Dr. Abdul Kalam, in the field of defence technology, brought
about revolutionary changes to reawaken the glory of Modern India
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
enumerate the important achievements of some of the great Indian scientists of
modern times: and
enlist their contributions to the service of human society.
17.1 SRINIVAS RAMANUJAN (1887-1920)
Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (FRS) better known as Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan, one
of India’s greatest mathematical genius, was born at Erode in Tamil Nadu on 22 December,
1887. Later on, his parents shifted to Kumbakonam, 160 kilometres from Chennai.
Ramanujan studied at the Town Hall School in Kumbakonam, where he proved himself to
be an able all-rounder. However, his love of mathematics was unusual. Numbers seemed
to draw him by a strange magnetism. In school itself at the age of thirteen, he came across
a book called Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure Mathemetic by G. S. Carr.
Though outdated, this book introduced him to the world of mathematics. He started working
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and developing his own ideas in mathematics. He used to write his ideas and results and
make notes on his findings.
Three of his research note books are available to us. They are called Ramanujan’s Frayed
Notebooks. He could not complete his college education as he kept on developing his
ideas and started posing problems and solving them in the Journal of Indian Mathematical
Society. In 1911, he published in the same journal a brilliant research paper on Bernoulli
Numbers. This got him recognition and he became well known in Madras circles as a
mathematical genius.
Lack of formal education made it very difficult for him to make both ends meet. With great
difficulty he could get the job of a clerk at Madras Port Trust which proved fortunate for
him. Here he came in contact with many people who had training in mathematics. He
found a book ‘Orders of Infinity’ written by G. H. Hardy. He wrote a letter to him in
which he mentioned 120 theorems and formulae. Hardy was quick to recognise his genius
and he responded by arranging for him a passage to London. Despite his lack of required
qualification he was allowed to enroll at Trinity College from where he got his Bachelor of
Science degree in less than two years. He formed a wonderful team with Hardy and J.E.
Littlewood and made amazing contributions to the field of mathematics. He published
many papers in London. He was the second Indian to be elected Fellow of the Royal
Society of London and the first Indian to be elected Fellow of Trinity College.
Ramanujan had an intimate familiarity with numbers. In 1917, he fell seriously ill, but the
numbers remained his friend, though his body betrayed him. Unfortunately, his health became
worse and he returned to India in 1919, “With a scientific standing and reputation”. He
died in 1920. His mathematical genius is a proof that India indeed is the birthplace and
source of great mathematical ideas.
17.2 CHANDRASEKHARA V. RAMAN (1888-1970)
Chandrasekhara V. Raman, popularly known as C.V. Raman, was not only a great scientist
but also believed in the promotion of human well being and human dignity. He won the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.He was the first Asian to receive this award.
C.V. Raman was born on 7 November 1888 in Tiruchirapalli, in Tamil Nadu. His father
was a professor of Physics and Mathematics. He grew up in an environment of Sanskrit
literature, music and science. Nature had gifted him with great power of concentration,
intelligence and spirit of inquiry. Even in his childhood, he was popular as a child genius.
He stood first in the Indian Audit and Accounts (IAAS) Examination and was appointed
as Assistant Accountant General in the Finance Department in Calcutta at the age of nineteen.
He sacrificed his high post for his love for science and joined the Science College of
Calcutta University as a professor of Physics. Due to his deep love of music, he started
working on musical instruments like the veena, violin, tabla and mridangam. In 1921, he
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read a paper on the theory of Stringed Instruments before the Royal Society of London. In
1924, he was made Fellow of the Royal Society.
On his journey to England, he was greatly attracted by the blue colour of the sea. He was
curious to know why it remained blue even when big waves rolled up. Then he got the
intuitive flash that it was due to the breaking up of sun’s light by water molecules. He
conducted many experiments and prepared a long paper on molecular scattering of light
and sent it to the Royal Society of London. The world of science was dumb struck at the
brilliance of his mind.
Raman Effect
When a beam of monochromatic (having single colour) light passes through a transparent
substance, it scatters. Raman studied the broken light. He found that there were two
spectral lines of very low intensity (strength) parallel to the incident monochromatic light.
This showed that broken light was not monochromatic, though the incident light was
monochromatic. Thus a great phenomenon hidden in nature was revealed to him. This
phenomenon became famous as Raman Effect and spectral lines in the scattered light as
Raman Lines. While scientists had been debating over the question whether light was like
waves or like particles, the Raman Effect proved that light is made up of particles known
as photons.
Dr. Raman was a great teacher and a great guide as well. He generated immense confidence
among his students. One of his students was in very low morale because he had only one
kilowatt powered X -Ray equipment, whereas a scientist in England was working with 5
kilowatt powered X-Ray equipment. Dr. Raman inspired him to use his 10 kilowatt powered
brain instead.
Dr. Raman’s life is a great example for us to follow. Even when India was under British rule
and there was hardly any basic infrastructure for experimentation, he used his great mind
as his laboratory. He proved through the example of his life, how our ancestors formulated
great theories using the power of their mind.
17.3 JAGDISH CHANDRA BOSE 1858-1937
J.C. Bose another great scientist of modem India brought glory and respect for the country.
He was born on 30 November, 1858 at Mymensingh, now in Bangladesh, where he had
his early education. He had his higher education at St. Xaviers College, Calcutta. In 1885
he was appointed Assistant Professor of Physics at the Presidency College but refused to
take salary because it was nearly half of that of an Englishman. Later on, he decided to
become a scientist to recover the fame that India enjoyed all over the world in ancient
times. He made an apparatus to study the properties of electric waves. For his paper on
“The Electromagnetic Radiation and Polarization of Electric Ray”, he was made a Knight
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in 1917 and Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1920. He was the first Indian
scientist in Physics to receive this honour.
Dr. Bose is famous all over the world as the inventor of Crescograph that can record even
the millionth part of a millimeter of plant growth and movement. Dr. Bose proved through
graphs taken by the Crescograph that plants have a circulatory system too. Crescograph
has also shown that the upward movement of sap in plants is the activity of living cells.
Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Bose instruments,
to prove that even metals react to outward stimuli. Bose’s instruments have shown, how
even steel and metals used in scissors and machinery get tired and regain efficiency after a
period of rest.
Besides Crescograph and other Bose instruments, his wireless inventions too antedated
those of Marconi. He was the first to invent a wireless coherer (radio signal detector) and
an instrument for indicating the refraction of electric waves. When someone drew his
attention towards this fact, he simply remarked that it is an invention which is more important
for mankind than the inventor.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.1
1.Who is called the father of nuclear physics in India?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Srinivasa Ramanujan excelled in which field?
_______________________________________________________________
3. Which work of Ramanujan Srinivasa was published in the Journal of Indian
Mathematical Society?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Who wrote the Orders of Infinity?
_______________________________________________________________
5.When did C.V. Raman win Nobel prize for physics?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What attracted the most to C.V. Raman during his journey to England?
_______________________________________________________________
7.Which paper was written by C.V. Raman and sent to Royal Society of London?
_______________________________________________________________
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8.What is called Raman Effect?
_______________________________________________________________
9.What are photons?
_______________________________________________________________
10.What work of Jagdish Chandra Bose gave him Knight position in London?
_______________________________________________________________
11.Who invented Crescograph?
_______________________________________________________________
12. What does a Crescograph record?
_______________________________________________________________
13.Who invented the first wireless coherer?
_______________________________________________________________
17.4 HOMI JEHANGIR BHABHA (1909-1966)
Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a great scientist. He led India into atomic age. He is called
the father of Indian Nuclear Science. He was born on 30 October, 1909 in a famous Parsi
family. Even as a boy, he showed his intelligence and won many prizes. He did his early
studies in Mumbai. He took a degree in Mechanical Engineering in First Class from
Cambridge, completed research work there and received his doctorate in 1935. Till 1939,
he carried outstanding original research relating to cosmic radiation. He returned to India
when the Second World War started.
Dr. Bhabha joined the Indian Institute of Sciences at Bangalore as a Reader at the request
of Dr. C.V. Raman. Soon he became a Professor of Physics. It was here that he got the
idea of building a research institute for some of the new areas of Physics. He took a very
bold decision and wrote a letter to Sir Dorab Ji Tata suggesting that an institution should be
established which would lay the foundation of India as a world nuclear power. This institute
would produce its own experts and the country would not have to depend on outside
sources. As a result, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was started in 1945,
at Dr. Bhabha’s ancestral home.
India’s first atomic research centre now called Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
was established at Trombay. India’s First atomic reactor, Apsara was also established
under his expert guidance. Bhabha became the first chairman of the Atomic Energy
Commission set up in 1948. His studies in the field of atomic energy are considered of
great importance in international circles. He served as the chairman of international
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conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, supported by the United Nations. The
Government of India honoured him with Padma Bhushan. In 1966, Dr. Bhabha died in a
plane crash.
17.5 DR. VIKRAM AMBALAL SARABHAI (1919-1970)
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai is another great genius of modem India. He was the main
personality behind the launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He received his primary
education at a school run by his parents. He studied cosmic rays under the guidance of Dr.
C.V. Raman and received his Ph.D. degree from Cambridge University. His studies of
cosmic rays have made it clear that cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles coming
from the outer space. While reaching the earth, they are influenced on the way by the sun,
the earth’s atmosphere and magnetism.
Dr. Sarabhai had a multifaceted personality. He was a great industrialist. Today, there are
many industries founded by him such as Sarabhai Chemicals, Sarabhai Glass, Sarabhai
Geigy Ltd., Sara Bhai Merck Ltd. and many others. He also helped in saving crores of
rupees for India by starting the mission of manufacturing military hardware and producing
antibiotics and penicillin in India which were being imported from abroad. He was also the
founder of Ahmedabad Textile Industrial Association and Ahmedabad Money Association.
In this way, he established a large number of successful industries.
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai established many institutes which are of international repute.
Most notable among them are Indian Institutes of Management (IIMS) which are considered
world class for their management studies.
He was the Chairman of the Indian National Commission for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) and of the Atomic Energy Commission. He directed the setting up of Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS). He also made plans to take education to
the villages through Satellite communication. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in
1966 and the Padma Vibhushan after his death. His death was a great loss to the nation.
17.6 DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
Dr. A.P.J .Abdul Kalam, the eleventh President of India was born on 15 October, 1931,
in the island town of Rameshwaram, in Tamil Nadu. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna,
India’s highest civilian honour in 1997 for his contributions in the field of science and
engineering.
Dr. Kalam had his primary education at Rameshwaram. He passed his class ten exams
from Schwartz High School, Ramanathapuram and obtained a degree in Aeronautical
Engineering from Madras Institute of Technology.
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Dr. Kalam served in Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) from 1963 to 1982. At
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, he developed the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV 3), which
put the satellite Rohini into orbit. In 1982, as Director, Defence Research Development
Organisation (DRDO), he was given the responsibility of Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme (IGMDP). He developed five projects for defence services -
Prithvi, Trishul, Akash,Nag and Agni. He led India into an era of self-dependence. Agni,
which is a surface to surface missile, is a unique achievement. Its successful launch made
India a member of the club of highly developed countries. The light weight carbon material
designed for Agni has been used to make calipers for the polio-affected. The material has
reduced the weight of calipers to 400 grams from 4 kgs. It is a great blessing for human
beings. The material has also been used for making spring like coils called stents, which
are used in Balloon Angioplasty for treating heart patients.
Dr. Kalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of India. He is a real follower of Indian
tradition and religion. He has integrated science with religion and philosophy. He strongly
believes in being guided from inside i.e. “relying more on inner signals and less on external
cues” as well as doing duties selflessly. Dr. Kalam says, “I have no belongings in the
worldly sense. I have acquired nothing, built nothing, possess nothing, no family, sons,
daughters.”
INTEXT QUESTIONS 17.2
1.What was the research work of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Which institution was opened at Dr. Bhabha’s ancestral home in 1945?
_______________________________________________________________
3.What was the name of the first Atomic Reactor?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What are cosmic rays?
_______________________________________________________________
5.How did Dr. Vikram Sarabhai able to save crores of Indian rupees?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What is TERLS?
_______________________________________________________________
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7.Name the projects for defence services developed by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
_______________________________________________________________
8.How did Dr Abdul Kalam help polio-affected people?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Srinivasa Ramanujan was a great mathematical genius of India who has several
outstanding achievements in this field to his credit.
C.V. Raman was an outstanding Indian scientist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics
in 1930. His finding that light is made up of particles known as photons is known as the
Raman Effect.
Dr. J.C. Bose is credited with the invention of the Crescograph that can record plant
growth and movement, among other achievements, like devising instruments known
as Bose instruments.
Dr. Homi Bhabha was another great Indian Scientist who led India into the atomic
age.
Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was another great genius of modem India who was behind the
launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He was also a great industrialist who
founded many industries. He was the chairperson of INCOSPAR and the Atomic
Energy Commissions.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India, developed the SLV3 which put the
satellite Rohini into orbit. As Director of DRDO, he developed five projects - Prithvi,
Trishul, Akash, Nag and Agni. He continues to inspire the Indian youth till today.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the contributions of Jagdish Chandra Bose in the field of sicence and
Technology.
2.Elaborate the efforts of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha in building India a super nuclear power.
3. How was C.V. Raman able to prove that our ancestors formulated great theories
using the power of their mind?
4.Dr Kalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of India. Discuss.
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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
17.1
1.Homi J. Bhabha
2.Mathematics
3.A research paper on Bernoulli numbers.
4.G.H. Hardy
5. In 1930
6.Blue colour of the sea
7.One molecular scattering of light
8.In the broken light, there were two spectral lines of low intensity parallel to the incident
monochromatic light. This showed that the broken light was not monochromatic though
the incident light was monochromatic.
9.Particles that together make light
10.His paper on the Electromagnetic Radiation and polarization.
11.Jagdish Chandra Bose
12.The millionth part of a centimeter growth of a plant and its movement.
13.Jagdish Chandra Bose
17.2
1.Cosmic Radiation
2.Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
3.Apsara
4.Cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles coming from the outer space.
5.He started the manufacturing of military hardware and producing antibiotics and penicillin
in India.
6.Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
7.Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag, and Agni
8.He reduced the weight of caliphers from 4 kgs to 400 gms only.
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18
EDUCATION IN INDIA
So far, you have been reading about different aspects of culture, such as art,
architecture, religion and science. Another important aspect of our culture is education.
But what is education? You may say that it means learning something in school or
from books. This is partially true. Education is a learning experience. But learning takes
place at all times in one’s life. However, whereas some other learning experiences could
be of a random or accidental nature, an educational experience is usually a deliberate and
pre-designed programme with the purpose of affecting certain pre-determined behavioural
changes in an individual. You are going through such an experience right now as you
proceed through various lessons of this course. But have you ever wondered how education
is related to culture? Culture is the sum total of the accumulated experiences and
achievements of previous generations inherited by succeeding generations as members of
society. The structured process of passing on this collective pool of experiences and
achievements may be called education. Hence education is not only a means of passing on
cultural beliefs and ideas, but it is also shaped by cultural beliefs since it is a product of
culture. The system of education thus changes along with changes in culture. In this lesson
we shall find out about the evolution of the systems of education that prevailed in India
since the most ancient times because society considered the education of its members as
one of its primary obligation.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
describe the nature of education imparted during different periods of Indian
history - ancient, medieval and modern;
assess the contributions of the Jain and the Buddhist systems of education;
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assess the educational status of women in society with regard to access to
education and nature of education imparted to them;
recall the steps undertaken in the field of education with the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate in medieval India;
appreciate the role of Mughal Rulers in making education more rationalistic;
examine the impact of spread of modern education during the colonial period;
assess the role of education in independent India in its various aspects such as
elementary education, vocational education, higher education and adult
education.
18.1 EDUCATION IN THE ANCIENT PERIOD
18.1.1 Vedic Period
Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who
gathered around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family.
Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama,
where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as
well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege of the upper castes.
Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the Guru-
Shishya Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony,
‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread ceremony). Education was normally imparted orally. It
included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or partially. Later
subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The
Maitrayani Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning
(vidya), reflection (chintan) and austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana)
one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and satisfaction of the soul in stages.
During this time self education was regarded as the proper method of attaining the highest
knowledge. The best example of this can be found in the Taitteriya Upanishad where
Bhrgu, son of Varuna, approaches his father and asks him to teach what is Brahmana. The
father tells him to find this out through meditation.
18.1.2 Mauryan Period
During the Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a
phase of intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile
community came to acquire an important position. As a result, the guilds of the merchants
began to play an active role in providing education. They became centres of technical
education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing.
There were new formulations in building and architecture. With the emergence of city life,
new architectural forms evolved. The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study
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of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation. The astronomers and cosmologists
began a debate on “time” (kala). This helped in the development of a sharp sense of “time”
(kala) in comparison to the past. Medical knowledge began to be systemised as Ayurveda.
The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical system. A right combination of the
three was necessary for a healthy body. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs
and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’ became famous for medicine
and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and
exhaustive work on medicines.
You must have heard of Chanakya, who was a renowned philosopher, scholar and teacher.
His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The currcula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra
refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the prince learnt the four
Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics
and politics. Education of those times was primarily life skills based which is so different
from what education is today. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was Dhanurveda,
Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and
writing), Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming).
18.1.3 Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different
dimension. Buddhist monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the
oral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries.
Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other countries like China
and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries
were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted
scholars from far and near. Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra,
studying Buddhist religious books. Besides Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning
like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for
its high standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study
of the Puranas, epics, grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the
court language was the medium of instruction. The Jains used Sanskrit literature like
‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in the earlier phase. But to make
education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages
like Tamil, Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on
palm leaves that were tied together and were known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and
Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started declining as centres of education
and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and
Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes.
18.1.4 Post Gupta Period
Art and education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at
all levels; education was given in temples and monastries and higher education in universities
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of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying
Buddhists sculptures. Shilabhadra, a renowned scholar was its head.
In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged
as new centres of learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. The medium
of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these temple colleges was open only to the upper
castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of instruction distanced the
common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost
sections of society.
18.2 AIMS OF EDUCATION
In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was
the development of pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a process of
one’s inner growth and self-fulfïlment, techniques, rules :and methods were evolved. It
was believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the training of his/her
mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her
creative capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was reckoned higher than the
subject of thinking. Thus, the primary subject of education was the mind itself.
18.3 SUBJECTS
Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of
areas and volumes were known to people in ancient India. The scientific system of medicine
was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of learning
like Takshila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’
on surgery were two important works in this field. Sushruta considered surgery as “the
highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. Mathematics or ‘ganita’
included Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic
was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major
contribution in the field of mathematics. Astronomy was overshadowed by Brahmanical
superstitions. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of
the instruments and the methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive.
The bronze and copper remains from the time of Indus Valley Civilization are indicative of
the development of chemistry and metallury. The processes of leather tanning, dyeing, and
fermenting were devised during this period.
18.4 LANGUAGE
Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical
education. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the
Hindu rulers and courtiers. ‘Prakrit’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It
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became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts.
It is interesting to note that in Sanskrit drama, women and the humble characters were
made to speak in formalised Prakrit. Pali was one of the early variants of Prakrit. Most of
the Buddhist canonical writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was
also in circulation. Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat
and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada
and Malyalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They found expression in the
literature of this period as well.
The best example of ancient India’s advancement was the university of Nalanda.
Hiuen Tsang a famous Chinese traveller records Nalanda University as a post graduate
university for advanced study and research. Nalanda was also famous for its ‘Schools
of Discussion” as noted by the students who had their own hostels. King
Balaputradeva constructed a temple for the students of Java who came to study at
Nalanda.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.1
1.How is education related to culture?
_______________________________________________________________
2.What is Upanayana ceremony?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Where was education imparted in the ancient period?
_______________________________________________________________
4.What was the basis of Indian Medical system in ancient period?
_______________________________________________________________
5.Name the two literary work used by Jains for teachings in ancient India?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What were the reasons because of which common people distanced themselves from
education in ancient period?
_______________________________________________________________
18.5 EDUCATION IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islamic system of education was introduced.
Education in medieval India was designed on the lines of the tradition of education developed
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under the Abbasids of Baghdad. As a result, scholars from countries like Samarqand,
Bukhara and Iran looked up to the Indian scholars for guidance. Amir Khusrau, an exemplary
personality, not only developed the skill of writing prose and poetry but also devised a
new language which suited the local conditions. Some contemporary historians like Minhajus-
Siraj, Ziauddin Barani and Afif have written about Indian scholarship.
The institutions that provided school education were known as ‘makhtabs’, while those
of higher learning were called ‘madrasas’. The ‘makhtabs’ were generally run by public
donations while ‘Madrasas’ were maintained by the rulers and nobles. There were six
different types of institutions: (i) those established and maintained by nobles and rulers,
(ii) those which were started by individual scholars with the help of state assistance or
donations, (iii) those that were attached to the mosques, (iv) those that were attached to
the tombs, (v) those that were started and maintained by individual scholars, and (vi) those
that were attached to the Sufi hospices. The famous ‘madrasas’ were the Muizzi, the
Nasiri and the Firuzi madrasas in Delhi, Mohammed Gawani’s madrasa in Bidar and
Abul Fazl’s madrasa in Fatehpur Sikri. The Sirat-i-figuz Shahi gives a list of 14 subjects
that were taught in the Madarsas like Jurisprudence or Dirat which was a method of
recitation, punctuation and vocalization of the text Quran etc.
The main feature of the Muslim educational system was that it was traditional in spirit and
theological in content. The curriculum was broadly divided into two categories: the traditional
(Manqulat) and the rational (Maqulat) sciences. Traditions, law and history and literature
came under the traditional sciences. Logic, philosophy, medicine, mathematics and
astronomy came under rational sciences. Later, rational sciences came to be emphasized
more than the traditional sciences. Traditional subjects dominated education from the time
of Iltutmish (1211-36) till the reign of Sikander Lodi (1489-1517). The scenario started
changing from the time of Sikander Lodi when he invited the brothers Sheikh Abdullah and
Sheikh Azizullah from Multan to Delhi. They introduced the study of philosophy and logic
in the curriculum.
Education System under the Great Mughals
The Mughal period made immense contribution in the field of learning and education.
The Mughal emperors had great love for learning and they contributed more in the
field of spreading education through Pathshalas, Vidyapeeths, Makatabs and
Madarsas. Akbar gave grants to educational institutions. He started a College near
Jama Masjid. At that time, education was not a state subject. Generally the temples
and mosques were the centre of elementary education. They were dependent on
the donations given by rulers, rich men and donors. Sanskrit and Persian were
taught in temples and mosques. There was no provision for women’s education.
The women of the royal and rich families got education at home.
The Mughal rulers were great patrons of learning and literature. This period saw the rise of
Urdu as a language which came out of a long contact between Persian and Hindi i.e. the
Turks and the Indians. Babar wrote his own biography known as Tazuk-i-Babari. The
Mughal Emperor Humayun introduced the study of mathematics, astronomy and geography
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in the ‘madrasas’ in Delhi. This helped in reducing the bias in the existing education system.
Many Hindus took to learning Persian and a number of translations from Sanskrit to Persian
were made. Akbar added subjects like accountancy, public administration, geometry and
built a workshop near his palace. He personally supervised the workshop. Akbar’s attempt
to introduce secular and scientific system of education was not liked by the orthodox
sections. Akbar’s efforts ushered in a change which continued for centuries. In the eighteenth
century some nobles were against the introduction of Western methods in education which
involved inquiry, observation, investigation and conducting experiment. Memorising,
discussing and writing out the lessons were the basis of instruction in the Muslim ‘madrasas’.
Akbar patronised many scholars such as Abul Fazal, Faizi, Raja Todar Mal, Birbal and
Rahim. They were among the nine gems of his court who helped in spreading culture and
education.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.2
1.Which institutions provided school education in medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who maintained Madarsas in the medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
3.Name some of the famous madarsas of medieval period.
_______________________________________________________________
4.What was the main feature of the Muslim educational system?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What were the methods adopted by western countries in medieval period?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What were the changes made by Akbar in education?
_______________________________________________________________
18.6 EDUCATION IN THE MODERN PERIOD
18.6.1 Eighteenth Century: The Beginning of Modern Period
As in other aspects of social life in India, many of the traditional features of the preceeding
centuries had continued in the field of education. The old famous centres of higher learning
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like those at Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila near Bhagalpur, at Jagaddal in North Bengal,
Vallabhi at Kathiawar and Kanchi in the South had disappeared long ago. Islamic education,
on the other hand flourished subsequently under the patronage of rulers and nobles. Still
the majority of the Hindu population continued to receive education in their time honoured
institutions and with the growth of vernacular literature they studied their classical works.
‘There is not country’ wrote Thomas in 1891 ‘where the love of learning had so early an
origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful influence’. According to him ‘The English
found in India, a widespread style of elementary education and higher education, of which
the former was mainly practical while the latter mainly literary, philosophical and religious.
For about 150 years, the British were involved in trade and conquest in India. So they
maintained a distance from all kinds of cultural activities including education. The beginning
of oriental scholarship was made by Warren Hastings in 1781 when he started the Calcutta
Madrasa. His endeavour was primarily due to administrative reasons. Eleven years later,
in 1792, Jonathan Duncan, a Resident of Varanasi started a Sanskrit college to educate
native Hindus to assist the Europeans.
Meanwhile, Christian missionaries were making efforts to introduce Western education by
opening elementary schools and providing education to the more humble sections of the
society, including the so called untouchable castes.
18.6.2 Nineteenth Century
The first half of the nineteenth century can be called a period of educational experiments.
The East India Company’s Charter Act of 1813 enabled the Company to set aside one
lakh rupees for “the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of learned
natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of sciences among
the inhabitants of the British territories in India”. A debate ensued between the Orientalists
and the Anglicists which was finally settled by Macaulay’s Minutes and Bentinck’s Resolutïon
of 1835. It was decided that this fund would be utilised to promote European literature
and sciences. William Bentinck adopted English as the official language of the government.
Lord Hardinge in 1844, decided to grant employment to Indians who had received English
education.
Wood’s Despatch of 1854 underlined the objective of educational policy which was the
diffusion of “the improved arts, sciences, philosophy and literature of Europe” through
English or other modern Indian languages as the medium. The Despatch suggested that
Universities should be set up in Bombay (modern Mumbai), Madras (modern Chennai)
and Calcutta (modern Kolkata). It emphasized the development of private enterprise, a
system of grants-in-aid, training teachers in the schools, women’s education and so on. In
1857, the Universities of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were established. The Universities
of Punjab and Allahabad were established in 1882 and 1887 respectively.
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18.6.3 Beginning of 20th Century
In 1901, Lord Curzon convened the conference of Directors of Public Instruction which
began an era of educational reforms based on its decisions. In 1904, the Indian Universities
Act was passed that enabled the Universities to assume teaching, inspection of colleges
and undertake measures for qualitative improvement in higher education.
Under the Colonial Rule, mass education was neglected and the attempt was to create an
urban educated elite that would act as interpreter between the ruler and the ruled. The
examination system was emphasised in both high schools and Universities. The impact of
English education was not even. Literacy and education were more widespread in towns
than in villages. The positive aspect was that it produced a breed of educated political
leaders and social reformers who played important roles in the freedom struggle of the
country. The publication of newspapers and pamphlets brought about an awakening among
the masses.
18.6.4 Impact of English Education
The British encouraged the teaching of English language in schools and colleges as they
needed people to work in the administrative offices either as clerks or babus. This helped
in creating a new class of people who later helped them in governance as well as in controlling
many aspects of administration in India. As a result, Christian missionaries who came to
India started opening schools where English was taught. You will find many schools in
India even today who were opened during those times. One such school is Presentation
Convent in Delhi, which is still running and providing good education. Many Indians sent
their children to these schools as they thought it would help them in getting jobs in government
offices.
Do you know that the teaching of English was encouraged by the British rulers to suit their
own interest but it proved to be useful for the Indians in a different way. People living in
different parts of India spoke different languages and there was no language that could be
understood by all. Use of English by Indians provided one langauge that cut across the
entire country and became a common link for them. English books and newspapers brought
to them new ideas from across the sea, i.e. other countries. Fresh ideas from the west like
freedom, democracy, equality and brotherhood began to have its impact on the thinking of
the English knowing Indians which gave rise to national consciousness. The educated
Indians now thought of getting freedom from British rule.
18.7 EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA
As you know, we got independence from British rule in 1947 and the responsibility of
planning for the eduation of our people fell on the Indian Government of free India. To
achieve the goals of personal, economic, social, political and cultural development, it is
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necessary to make appropriate provisions for an integrated programme of education for
people who happen to be living at different levels of development, possessing different
linguistic, social and cultural attributes. Such programmes have to be based upon a common
curriculum to strengthen unity within diversity and also to facilitate mobility from one part
of the country to another.
If adequate measures are not taken for the spread of education, economic inequality,
regional imbalance and social injustice can widen further resulting in the building up of
tensions in society. That is why in 1966, the Report of the Education Commission (1964-
66) (popularly known as Kothari Commission) referred to education as the only instrument
of peaceful social change. To this end, the Constitutional Amendment of 1976 included
education in the concurrent list, that is, the centre and states both assume joint responsibility
of education.
18.7.1 Elementary Education
Elementary education is the most crucial stage of education, spanning the first eight years
of schooling (class I to VIII) and laying the foundation for the development of personality,
attitudes, social confidence, habits, life skills and communication skills of the pupils. The
Constitution under Article 45 provided for the State to introduce compulsory and free
education for children upto the age of fourteen. The period of elementary school is now
also recognised as a period of free and compulsory schooling vide the constitutional
amendment making education a fundamental right. We will read about this Act in detail
under Section 18.9 of this lesson. The National Policy on Education 1986 emphasized
that thrust areas in elementary education will be
i)universal access and enrolment.
ii)universal retention of children upto fourteen years of age in the school.
iii) substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve
essential levels of learning.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was a flagship programme of the Central Government for
universalization of elementary education started in 2001 .
18.7.2 Secondary Education
“Secondary school is a period of intense physical change and formation of identity. It is
also the period of intense vibrancy and energy.”
There has been a phenomenal expansion of secondary education since independence. It
covers children of age group 14-18 (classes 9th to 12th). According to 2001 census 88.5
million children are enrolled in secondary education. However enrolment figures show that
only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001-2002. While a great
increase has taken place in number of schools and in enrolment, there has been a lesser
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increase in the number of teachers. It is obvious that, on the whole it has adversely affected
the teacher-pupil ratio. The pressure for expansion will most certainly continue and may
indeed increase as the country progresses towards the universalisation of education.
Although anyone in India who wishes to pursue secondary education (upto class X) is
allowed to do so, not more than half of those who pass the upper primary stage join the
secondary classes. After the success of SSA at elementary stage, the central government
is all set to achieve the goal of universalization of secondary education under the Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, about which we will read in some detail under Section
18.9.
Vocational education is a distinct stream at Senior Secondary Stage. It aims at preparing
students for various occupations involving various kinds of activities. Vocationalisation of
higher secondary education was a major objective of the reforms envisaged in the First
Education Policy adopted in 1968. However, the attempts made till now have not borne
fruits and enrolment in the scheme, which was expected to include around 50% of students
at the +2 level, has remained marginal and confined to a few states. According to the
planning commission report for the 11th five year plan, there are about 5114 Industrial
Training Institutes (ITI’s) imparting training in 57 engineering and 50 non-engineering trades.
A positive step in this direction in recent times has been the setting up of a National Skill
Development Mission and Training.
18.7.3 Higher Education
The first Prime Minister of India, late Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, who laid the foundation of the
process of India’s modernisation, declared that if all is well with the Universities, all would
be well with the nation. Higher education begins after a student completes senior secondary
(class XII) stage. He then enters a college which is part of a university. Despite the key
role assigned to higher education, the development in this field has been extremely uneven.
While few colleges and universities are playing a crucial role in academic excellence, the
general condition of universities and colleges is a matter of great concern to the nation.
The number of students in the age group of 18-20 years enrolled for higher education is
low. The proportion is even more adverse in some regions, particularly in case of women,
scheduled castes and tribes. Rural areas have been touched only marginally by higher
education of quality. The facilities in colleges vary widely. It is important that courses in
higher education offer programmes of study and courses closely related to life, aimed at
the development of personality, reasoning and learning capabilities of students. The State
has subsidised higher education very greatly. A college student pays by way of fees a very
small amount of money. The rest of the expenses on his education is paid by the State or
the Central Government. This is public money which must be carefully spent for those who
deserve higher education.
As per report of Higher Education in India, the gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7%
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in 1950-51 to 11% by 2006-2007. By 2012 (the end of 11th plan), it is expected to
increase to 15%.
Adult Education
Removal of adult illiteracy has also been accepted as an imperative goal, Adult education
particularly in the age group of 15-35 years has been included as part of the minimum
needs programme in the sixth plan. In this regard National Literacy Mission (NLM) objective
is to impart functional literacy to 80 million illiterate persons. The literacy rate after
independence in 1951 of 7+ population was 18.3% which increased in 2011 to 74.0
percent. The male literacy rate is 82.14% and female is 65.46%.
18.7.4 Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET)
It is impossible to overestimate the importance of technical education. India already has
one of the largest reserviors of trained manpower. Technical and management curriculum
was targeted on current as well as the projected needs of industry. Technically trained
persons have already been a source of strength for scientific and industrial development. It
is often suggested that talented engineering students are not provided the kind of jobs and
work environment which would give them a sense of achievement and job satisfaction.
This has resulted in a significant incidence of brain drain either to the developed countries
or to the management stream. When brilliant young men and women, who are highly
educated and talented, leave the country and go to a foreign country in search of better
income, it is called brain drain. There are several centres of excellence in technical and
professional educaiton in India like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) and Indian
Institutes of Management (IIM)
National Education Policy
Since independence, the Nation has invested a large part of its resources in education. It,
therefore, has a right to expect the efficient functioning of educational institutions. The first
National Education Policy of 1968 marked a significant step in the history of education in
post-independence India. It aimed to promote national progress, a sense of common
citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national integration. It laid stress on the need for
a radical reconstruction of the education system, technology, the cultivation of moral values
and a closer relation between education and the life of the people.
The new National Policy of Education (1986), was formulated on the strength of
considerable achievements in the last few years. India already has extensive network of
schools. Approximately 95% of the population is within one kilometre of a primary school
and 80% is within three kilometres of a middle school. In accordance with the National
Policy on Education (1986) a comprehensive programme ‘National Literacy Mission’
(NLM) has been started for imparting literacy amongst the 15-35 age group.
India has a large network of television and radio stations. The availability of a satellite and
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a television network covering a majority of the population is potentially one of the most
significant factors, which can undoubtedly revolutionise the teaching - learning system by
enriching formal education and by supporting non-formal education, as well as the distance
learning programme.
The decision to set up pace setting Navodaya Vidyalayas in every district reflects not only
the extent of central commitment to education but also its concern for equality for all in
education. Through these schools the most meritorious children, particularly in rural areas,
will be able to get quality education irrespective of the economic status of their parents.
Open and Distance Learning System
There are many learners who are compelled to discontinue their studies in the formal
system. This may be because of financial, geographical, academic or medical reasons.
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) system is meant for such learners. In this system the
learner can learn through lessons sent by the institutions of distance learning without attending
classes. These students can keep themselves engaged in service or business while studying.
The learner is not in direct touch with the teacher. He is at a distance. Open School at
present offers both secondary (Class X) and senior secondary (Class XII) education. You
have joined Open School. You know that while retaining your regular employment, you
are also studying through the lessons sent to you. These lessons have been prepared with
a lot of care. The system is open because there is flexibility in terms of pace, place and
time. You are free to select any combination of subjects and pass them at your convenience
over a period of five years. Similar facility is being provided at higher level by the Indira
Gandhi National Open University.
These institutions will go a long way in taking education to every Indian citizen who may
not have been able to continue with the regular stream of education. Thus, education has
developed at a rapid pace in India since independence. The national goals of development,
integration, excellence and equality in the sphere of education can be fulfilled only when
every child in the country crosses a minimum threshold of educational attainment. A holistic
atmosphere of development, hard work and excellence has to be built up through a
programme which involves everybody as a promoter as well as a recipient of new attitudes
and ideas.
18.8 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION
Right to Education Act
The 86th Constitutional amendment, making education a fundamental right was passed by
Parliament in 2002. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, a law
to enable the implementation of the fundamental right, was passed by the Parliament in
April 2010.
The law makes it obligatory on part of the state governments and local bodies to ensure
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that every child in the age group 6-14 gets free elementary education in a school in the
neighbourhood. At present, there are nearly 22 crore children in the relevant age group.
However, 4.6 per cent of these children (nearly 92 lakh) are out of school.
As per the Act, the school mangement committee or the local authority will identify the
drop-outs or out of school children above six years of age and admit them in classes
appropriate to their age after giving special training.
Rastriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
RMSA is a centrally sponsored scheme for Universalisation of access to and improvement
of quality education at Secondary stage was implemented during 11th five year plan period.
The goal of RMSA is to make secondary education of good quality available, accessible
and affordable to all young students in the age group 15-16 years (classes IX and X). The
major target of the scheme is (i) Universal access of Secondary level education to all
students in the age group 15-16 years by 2015 by providing a secondary school within 5
kilometers of any habitation and a higher secondary school within 7 kilometers of any
habitation and (ii) Universal retention by 2010.
Strategies for implementation of RMSA
(i)To provide access of secondary school to students, following strategies have envisaged
in the RMSA framework.
(a)up gradation of upper primary schools through construction of classrooms
laboratories, computer rooms, headmaster room, library rooms, separate toilets
for girls and boys, appointment of additional teachers and
(b) Strengthening of existing secondary schools through construction of classrooms,
computer rooms, separate toilets for girls and boys, appointment of additional
teachers, strengthening of lab facilities and repair and renovation of existing school
buildings.
(ii) To remove disparity among the different social groups of people, the scheme envisages
the special incentive for students belonging to SC/ST/minorities/other weaker sections
of the society.
(iii) To improve the quality of RMSA scheme it has been proposed that following work
should be carried out.
a. Construction of science lab, libraries
b. In service training of teachers
c. Leadership training of school head
d. Curricular reforms
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e. Science and Maths education
f. Computer aided educaiton
g. Co-curricular activities
h. Teaching learning aids
INTEXT QUESTIONS 18.3
1.What was Bentinck’s Resolution of 1835?
_______________________________________________________________
2.Who adopted English as the official langauge of the government?
_______________________________________________________________
3.When was Indian universities Act passed?
_______________________________________________________________
4.Where were the three universities established in 1857?
_______________________________________________________________
5.What was the basis of education under the colonial rule?
_______________________________________________________________
6.What was the positive aspect of English education in pre-independence India?
_______________________________________________________________
7.When did education come under the concurrent list of the constitution?
_______________________________________________________________
8.When was New National Policy on Education formulated?
_______________________________________________________________
9.Which are the thrust areas in elementary education?
_______________________________________________________________
10.What is the importance of secondary education?
_______________________________________________________________
11.What is the alarming situation in Higher Education stage?
_______________________________________________________________
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12.What is the age group for adult education?
_______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
In the Vedic period, education was imparted in the ‘ashramas’ which were primarily
a privilege of the so called upper castes (varnas).
Education was also provided by the guilds which became centres of technical education
during the period BC 200 - AD 300.
Buddhist monasteries and the Jain system of education played a significant role in
making India a leading learning centre in the world.
After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, the Muslim system of education was
introduced which was an elaborate system encompassing both elementary and higher
learning.
The introduction of Western education brought some radical changes in terms of
providing education to all sections of society including the so called “untouchables”.
The National Policy of Education 1986, marked a significant step in the history of
education in independent India.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1.Briefly describe the development of education in the Ancient period?
2.Discuss the steps undertaken in the field of education with the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate in medieval India?
3.What were the changes introduced in the system of education during Mughals?
4.Elaborate the development of education from 1854 to 1904.
5.Discuss the measure taken in independent India to eradicate illiteracy?
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
18.1
1.The system of education changes alongwith the change in culture.
2.The process of learning begins with a sacred thread ceremony.
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3.In the Ashramas.
4.Vayu, Kaf, Pitt (Air, Mucus, bile)
5.Adipurana and Yashatilaka
6.(a) Education was a priviledge of upper class society.
(b) Use of Sanskrit language in education
18.2
1.Makhtabs
2.Kings (the rulers) and nobles
3.Muizzi, Nasiri, Firuzi - in Delhi
Mohammed Gawani’s Madarsa - Bidar
Abdul Fazl’s madarsa - Fatehpur Sikri
4.It was traditional in spirit and theological in content.
5.It involved inquiry, observation, investigation and experiment in education.
6.He introduced secular and scientific system in education.
18.3
1.To promote European literature and sciences.
2.William Bentinck
3. 1904
4.Bombay, Madras, Calcutta
5.To create an educated urban elite that would act as interpreter between the ruler and
the ruled.
6. A new class of social reformers and educated political leaders were produced that
helped in the freedom struggle of the country.
7.By the Constitutional Amendment of 1976.
8. In 1986.
9.(a) Universal access and enrolment
(b) Universal retention of children upto 14 years of age.
(c) Substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve
essential levels of learning.
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10.It makes children familiar with the basic branches of knowledge.
11.(a) The number of students in the age group of 18-20 years enrolled for higher education
is low.
(b) The proportion of women, scheduled castes and tribes in higher education is worse.
12. 15-35 years
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